CHARACTERIZATION OF PLASTERS AND MORTARS AS A TOOL IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES: THE CASE OF LARDIRAGO CASTLE IN PAVIA,NORTHERN ITALY*

Plasters and mortars from Lardirago Castle (Pavia, northern Italy) have been characterized by means of petrographical and chemical analyses in order to achieve technical and historical evidence of material production. The study focused on the oldest nucleus of the structure, where hidden plastered masonry has been discovered recently. Textural and compositional data of the binder and the aggregate fractions were collected by means of optical microscopy and electron microscopy coupled with microanalysis. These data permit the identification of building materials with similar technical and compositional characteristics, which can be related to different building phases.     

A MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO THE CHARACTERIZATION OF ROMAN GRAVESTONES FROM AQUILEIA (UDINE,ITALY)*

The results of an archaeometric study on gravestone production in Aquileia (northeastern Italy) during Roman Republican times are reported here. The artefacts are made of limestone, quarried from the sedimentary sequence of the Trieste Karst (Carnican Alps, northeastern Italy), as testified by historical sources which refer to the ‘Roman Quarry’ at Aurisina. The rock types used for the gravestones are petrographically, geochemically and geochronologically homogeneous, and display similar faunal assemblages. In addition, their age is restricted to the Santonian – Lower Campanian. Comparisons between archaeological finds and rock specimens from various active and inactive quarries in this area suggest that quarrying during Roman Republican times was limited to a specific stratigraphic horizon of the sedimentary sequence, corresponding to the higher part of the ‘Roman Quarry’.     

RESEARCH NOTES AND APPLICATION REPORTS U-SERIES DATING OF THE DEPOSITS FROM THE PRINCE CAVE,NORTHERN ITALY

The travertine layers of the Prince Cave have been dated by the U-series methods. The age of the lower part of the breccia Br2, where a human iliac fossil bone was discovered, is between 110 and 160 ka. and the upper part of Br2, together with the breccia Br1, between 79 and 160 ka. The reliability of the results is confirmed not only by the consistency of the dates obtained from samples in close proximity, but also by the agreement between two independent dating methods: Th-230/U-234 and Th-227/Th-230.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF PLASTERS FROM PTOLEMAIC BATHS: NEW EXCAVATIONS NEAR THE KARNAK TEMPLE COMPLEX,UPPER EGYPT*

The aim of the present work is to characterize plasters from Ptolemaic baths recently discovered in front of the Karnak temple complex, by the excavations of an Egyptian–French team. The characterization was carried out by means of optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with an energy‐dispersive X‐ray detector (EDS), X‐ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT–IR). The results allowed the identification of the chemical composition and structure of these plasters. In addition, samples of red, yellow, black and white pigments were examined and identified. The results helped in providing an image concerning some materials used during the Ptolemaic era in ancient Egypt.     

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AMBERS FROM NORTHERN ITALY: AN FTIR–DRIFT STUDY OF PROVENANCE BY COMPARISON WITH THE GEOLOGICAL AMBER DATABASE*

European geological ambers of five different localities and types, and Italian geological ambers from seven different deposits have been studied with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and diffuse‐reflectance infrared Fourier transform (DRIFT). Ambers from several localities have been characterized for the first time. The research aims to create a database of European ambers, containing both FTIR and DRIFT data. The FTIR spectra are easily comparable with the data commonly available in the literature, whereas DRIFT analyses are shown to be more useful to characterize the archaeological finds. The provenance of several archaeological ambers from northern and southern Italy, dating from the Middle Bronze Age to the Iron Age, is assessed on the basis of the developed database. Of the 35 analysed archaeological objects, all but five are composed of Baltic succinite amber.     

DEEPLY COLOURED AND BLACK GLASS IN THE NORTHERN PROVINCES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE: DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES IN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION BEFORE AND AFTER ad 150*

In this work we attempt to elucidate the chronological and geographical origin of deeply coloured and black glass dating between 100 bc and ad 300 on the basis of their major and trace element compositions. Samples from the western and eastern parts of the Roman Empire were analysed. Analytical data were obtained by means of a scanning electron microscope – energy‐dispersive system (SEM–EDS, 63 samples analysed) and laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS, 41 samples analysed). Among the glass fragments analysed, dark brown, dark purple and dark green hues could be distinguished. Only among the dark green fragments could a clear compositional distinction be observed between fragments dated to the periods before and after ad 150. In the early samples (first century bc to first century ad ), iron, responsible for the green hue, was introduced by using impure sand containing relatively high amounts of Ti. In contrast, a Ti‐poor source of iron was employed, containing Sb, Co and Pb in trace quantities, in order to obtain the dark green colour in the later glass samples. The analytical results obtained by combining SEM–EDS and LA–ICP–MS are therefore consistent with a differentiation of glassmaking recipes, detectable in glass composition, occurring in the period around ad 150.     

ETHNICITY, RELIGION, AND CLASS AS ELEMENTS IN THE EVOLUTION OF LAKE WINNIPEG RESORTS

Resorts on the south basin of Lake Winnipeg serve a significant proportion of the summer cottage market of Winnipeg, Manitoba. Of the larger resorts, Winnipeg Beach and Grand Beach were developed by rival railway companies as popular resorts to exploit the mass excursion market, whereas Victoria Beach was developed by a syndicate intent on creating an exclusive, tranquil cottage retreat. These, and other smaller resorts, were and still are patronized by different market segments identifiable by class, religion, ethnic association, and place of primary residence in Winnipeg.     

THE IMPACT OF LOCAL WAGE REGULATION ON EMPLOYMENT: A BORDER ANALYSIS FROM ITALY IN THE 1950s*

This paper measures the impact of wage zones—compulsory wage differentials at the province level—on Italy's local labor markets during the 1950s. Using spatial regression techniques, it finds that for the industrial sectors covered under wage zones there was an increase in employment when one crossed the border from a high‐wage province into a low‐wage one; the effect diminished, however, as the distance from the boundary increased. The paper also illustrates that the impact on the overall (nonfarm) private sector, which includes both covered and uncovered sectors, was negligible.     

ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF A GROUP OF GLAZED TERRACOTTA ANGELS FROM THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE,AS A TOOL FOR THE RECONSTRUCTION OF A COMPLEX CONSERVATION HISTORY*

A group of Italian glazed terracotta sculptures, attributed to the della Robbia workshop of Florence, is partly displayed in the Louvre Museum. Analyses of the apparently homogeneous sculptures by techniques such as PIXE, SEM, ICP/AES and ICP/MS have identified differences in the materials used. The data provide a subdivision of the sculptures, which is compatible with what is known from historical documents and artistic considerations, and suggest a date for this ensemble at the end of the 15th century, when the della Robbia family was involved in the decoration of the San Frediano church in Florence.     

HISTORY,INSTITUTIONS, AND CITIES: A VIEW FROM THE AMERICAS*

ABSTRACT Every nation, formally or informally, defines and establishes the lines of political and fiscal authority among its national, regional, and local governments. Historically, centralized governments tend to restrict the power and autonomy of provincial and local governments. In this paper, we exploit the quasi‐experimental distribution of political institutions in the Americas caused by variation in European colonial experience to examine the impact of institutions on urban and local development, specifically on the degree of urban primacy, the size distribution of cities, the number and density of local government units, and the fragmentation of metropolitan areas. We argue that centralization of political power at the national level, as experienced in many countries in Latin America, contributes to urban primacy and a size distribution of cities favoring large cities. Additionally, even in more politically decentralized countries such as Canada and the U.S., variance in political centralization at the provincial (state) level over local governments led to significant divergences in urban primacy, the distribution of city sizes, as well as the form, number, and density of local governments. While we cannot rule out the importance of other factors, our findings suggest that political centralization affects spatial economic development.     

GEOCHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF THE VOLCANIC TUFFS USED IN THE ETRUSCAN TOMBS OF NORCHIA (NORTHERN LATIUM,ITALY) AND A STUDY OF THE FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR RAPID SURFACE AND STRUCTURAL DECAY

The geochemical and engineering geological properties of the tuffs used in the rock‐cut cliff tombs of the Etruscan necropolis of Norchia were investigated to evaluate their susceptibility to different weathering agents and confirm their origin. For the first time, materials were characterized by X‐ray powder diffraction (XRD), Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy (FT–IR), thermogravimetric analyses (TGA, DGA and DTG), scanning electron microscopy (SEM–EDS) and energy‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence (ED–XRF), and their different origins confirmed. Tests of material properties indicate that both tuffs are poorly durable, but one of them is less susceptible to weathering. Although tombs made with the more resistant material show limited surface weathering, they undergo severe structural damage because of stress release and plant root infiltration. This, combined with the microclimatic conditions established inside river canyons, can trigger rock falls, leading ultimately to the complete destruction of these tombs.     

LAND USE IN THE PRESENCE OF AN ATMOSPHERE EXTERNALITY,WITH AND WITHOUT CORRECTIVE TAXES*

ABSTRACT. Total cleared area in a von Thünen land-use model drives an atmosphere externality which depresses agricultural productivity uniformly throughout the region. Exogenous events that encourage clearance and use of a larger cultivated area (output price or population increase) exacerbate the externality. Imposition of a simple, corrective tax on land rents does not reverse these patterns but does mitigate the increase in the externality and leaves cultivators with higher incomes than they would obtain without the tax. We examine an optimal tax on land rents, designed to maximize the social value of land rents in the region, and an output tax.     

ACCESSORY MINERALS AS TRACERS IN THE PROVENANCING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MARBLES,USED IN COMBINATION WITH ISOTOPIC AND PETROGRAPHIC DATA*

Thirty‐eight archaeological marbles (Roman and medieval) from Modena and Reggio Emilia (northern Italy) were provenanced using the accessory minerals as tracers and the results were compared with those inferred for the same artefacts using isotope composition and MGS (maximum grain size of calcite grains). The number of inferred possible sources is generally lower when using the mineralogical method, which therefore seems to be suited to marble provenancing.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE AMPHORAE,STONE BALLAST AND STOWAGE MATERIALS OF THE SHIPS FROM THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE OF PISA–SAN ROSSORE,ITALY: INFERENCES ON THEIR PROVENANCE AND POSSIBLE TRADING ROUTES*

In December 1998, during excavation for the construction of a new building near San Rossore railway station in Pisa, the remains of ancient ships were discovered. These findings have been dated (radiocarbon) to between the end of the 10th century bc and the fifth century ad ( Belluomini et al. 2002 ). Several transport amphorae belonging to the Hellenistic ship, samples of rocks (stone ballast) belonging to ships B, D and the Hellenistic ship, and stowage materials belonging only to ship B have been analysed. The mineralogical and petrographic data of the investigated samples provided information on the possible provenance of the raw materials utilized in the manufacture of the ceramic amphorae, as well as on the provenance of the rock materials found in the ships as ballast and stowage. The compositional data (obtained through XRD, XRF, OM and EPMA) and their statistical analyses suggest that the provenance of the Dressel amphorae belonging to the Hellenistic ship was the Middle Tyrrhenian coast of Italy, and more precisely the area between Tarquinia and Naples, according to the numerous kilns and wine production sites found in this area. The provenance of the volcanic rocks was from southern Tuscany, northern Latium and possibly the Pontine Islands, whereas the intrusive rock possibly comes from the Calabrian–Tyrrhenian coast and/or the Peloritani area. The impure limestones and the dolostone come from southern Tuscany and the Latium coast; the semi‐metamorphic rocks could come from the coast of southern Tuscany, the Tuscan Archipelago or possibly also from the Ligurian coast; only the sample of mylonitized granitoid possibly comes from either the Calabria–Peloritani arc or the Tuscan Archipelago. The stowage materials, consisting of lapilli and scoria of a pyroclastic nature, are sourced from the Neapolitan area. These data might shed some light on the centres of production of the amphorae and of the trading routes followed by the ships, according to the ports of call.     

GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SEDIMENTS IN AND AROUND AN EARLY NEOLITHIC WELL NEAR BRODAU,GERMANY*

The discovery of wells of the linear pottery culture since 1990 has led to new insights on the ability and needs of humans at this time. The still small number of about 20 wells in Europe, compared to the much greater number of known settlements of this period, led to the assumption that they were built for special purposes, other than the water supply for the whole village. Investigations on the origin of archaeosediments of a more than 7000‐year‐old and 4.2 m deep well from the linear pottery culture in north‐west Saxony, Germany were carried out by geochemical analysis to improve our knowledge of the building, the usage and the decay of this wooden construction. Special emphasis was put on the material around two 10‐week‐old piglets that were intentionally deposited in the construction pit. Three major units—the sediment in the well, the infilling of the construction pit and the surrounding gravels—influenced by lateral transport of fine clay could be identified and described.     

HOUSES, DEFENCES AND STATUS; THE TOWNS OF ROMAN BRITAIN IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE SECOND CENTURY A.D.

Summary. The appearance of spacious and well-equipped houses in the towns of Roman Britain from the mid second century, following an initial period of resistance to urban dwelling on the part of the wealthy, requires explanation. Various possible motivating factors—the increasing prosperity of villa owners, the desire for security, official pressure coupled with renewed imperial interest in urban development, the availability of cheap building land, the example of the coloniae and the promotion of towns to higher rank—are considered. In many cases a combination of these factors will have applied, but the growing prestige of the towns themselves seems to have been a powerful attraction.     

A NEW SETTING FOR THE NORTHERN BORDER OF THE VENETI: METALLIC FINDS FROM THE VENETIC SITE OF MONTE CALVARIO,AURONZO DI CADORE*

In 2000 several bronze and lead objects were discovered at the Venetic‐Roman site (200 bc –ad 200) of Monte Calvario di Auronzo, in the Italian eastern Alps. They were mostly finished artefacts plus semi‐worked products. Analysis included SEM–EDS, EMPA, XRPD, TMS and AMS spectrometry. The compositional results of the finished artefacts suggest that the choice of the alloy had been made according to the decorative techniques to be used. A semi‐worked high‐leaded bronze object indicates the existence of a metallurgical production of cast artefacts at the site. TMS analyses of a lead ingot exclude local provenance, proving the existence of important trade routes.     

HIGH‐RESOLUTION (PIXE) ANALYSES OF CARBONATE DEPOSITS IN A ROMAN AQUEDUCT (FRÉJUS,SE FRANCE): IMPLICATIONS FOR THE STUDY OF PALAEOHYDROLOGICAL VARIABILITY AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN SOUTHERN GAUL DURING THE ROMAN PERIOD*

Urban water was supplied to the Roman city of Forum Julii (Fréjus, southeastern France) for at least 200 years by a 39.4 km long aqueduct, operating in ad 50. Two perennial springs were successively collected, the Foux and the Siagnole, located at the outlet of Triassic and Jurassic karstic reservoirs, respectively. In this study, we performed high‐resolution PIXE (Particle‐Induced X‐ray Emission) measurements of Ca, Si, Fe and Sr concentrations on selected cross‐sections of laminated carbonate sampled along the sidewalls, before and after the connection of the two collection channels. Seasonal variations of water composition, suspended sediment load and discharge are recorded by alternating clear and dark layers, and can be traced by their Sr and Fe contents. On the basis of an annual bimodal high‐discharge regime for the two karstic reservoirs, the concentration measurements allow the derivation of a chronological record (117.5 years) of water supply and maintenance activities for a part of the operational period of the aqueduct. The water level in the channel was mainly controlled by the extent of carbonate deposition and by dredging, repair and maintenance operations rather than by the past hydrological regime of the two springs.