Characterizing the Alabastro listato or fiorito of Hierapolis in Phrygia: A Simple Method to Identify its Provenance using Carbon Stable Isotopes

Alabastro listato or fiorito of Hierapolis in Phrygia was a prestigious coloured marble widely used in Roman architecture and decoration. This stone is generally identified in artefacts on autoptic examination, but it may sometimes be confused with alabasters of different provenances. This study describes a simple, but effective, scientific method to contribute to the determination of Hierapolis alabaster. Due to its unique genetic context, it is characterized by a distinctive carbon isotope signature. A comparison between the stable carbon isotope data from this paper and from the literature confirms the uniqueness of the isotopic character of Hierapolis alabaster. Carbon isotopes can ensure a reliably provenance attribution of the alabaster artefacts along with visual recognition by an expert eye.     

TRACING THE RESOURCES OF IRON WORKING AT ANCIENT SAGALASSOS (SOUTH‐WEST TURKEY): A COMBINED LEAD AND STRONTIUM ISOTOPE STUDY ON IRON ARTEFACTS AND ORES*

Lead and strontium isotope analyses were performed by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) on Roman to Byzantine iron artefacts and iron ores from the territory of ancient Sagalassos (south‐west Turkey), to evaluate Pb and Sr isotopes for provenance determination of ores for local iron production. It can be demonstrated that for early Roman artefacts and hematite iron ore processed in early Roman times from Sagalassos proper, as well as for magnetite placer sands and early Byzantine raw iron from the territory of the city, Sr isotopes are much less ambiguous than Pb isotopes in providing clearly coherent signatures for ore and related iron objects. Late Roman iron objects were produced from iron ores that as yet remain unidentified. Early Byzantine iron artefacts display more scatter in both their Pb and Sr isotope signatures, indicating that many different ore sources may have been used. Our study demonstrates that iron objects can be precisely analysed for their Sr isotopic composition, which, compared to Pb isotopes, appears to be a much more powerful tool for distinguishing between chronological groups and determining the provenance of raw materials.     

THE STUCCO TECHNIQUE OF THE MAGISTRI COMACINI: THE CASE STUDY OF SANTA MARIA DEI GHIRLI IN CAMPIONE D'ITALIA (COMO,ITALY)

This paper is aimed at defining the artistic technique performed by the outstanding artist Isidoro Bianchi for the Baroque stucco decorations in the church of Santa Maria dei Ghirli (Campione d'Italia, Italy). Samples of stucco were examined by means of optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with a microprobe, X‐ray powder diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and laser ablation mass spectrometry equipped with plasma source spectrometry. On the basis of the results obtained, art historians have made new hypotheses on the biography of the artist and on the historical location of his birthplace.     

Territorializing Armenians: geo‐texts,and political imaginaries in French‐occupied Cilicia, 1919–1922

This article examines the petitions, letters, opinion pieces and scholarly works that Armenian intellectuals generated to convince French decision‐makers to carve an Armenian nation‐state out of Cilicia (present‐day southern Turkey). This colonial encounter took place within the process by which European powers dismembered the defeated Ottoman state following the First World War. These “geo‐texts”—textual representations of territory and population—were strategic attempts at adjusting the parameters of French imperialism, and thus tapped into French notions of history and ethnology to make a case for an Armenian state. First, I show how Armenians adopted and inflected French epistemologies to depict their ancient homeland. Then, I trace the shift from a representation based on historical commonalities between the Armenians and French to one that stressed the ethnological specificities of Armenian nation and territory. Finally, I argue that the static notions of territory, text and population that lobbyists produced continue to fuel scholarly debate over the confessional and ethnic make‐up of Cilicia. This study on “geo‐texts” provides insights into how, at a certain historical moment, differences and similarities among people, both within a society and between societies, are established in text.     

An Etruscan ointment from Chiusi (Tuscany,Italy): its chemical characterization

This paper focuses on the chemical characterization of the original contents of an Egyptian origin alabaster unguentarium, found in an Etruscan burial in Chiusi (Tuscany, Italy) and dated 150/125–100 B.C. The unguentarium, found in an intact tomb belonging to a noble woman of Chiusine society, preserved a good part of its original contents owing to a protective layer of clay. The chemical characterization was carried out using a combination of two analytical procedures based, respectively, on Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS).     

The So‐called Venetian Enamelled Copper Artworks of the Italian Renaissance: the Technology and Provenance of the Enamels—an Analytical Approach

The so‐called Venetian enamelled coppers are a group of objects produced in Italy during the 15th century. Up to now, about 300 objects have been recognized in private collections and in European and US museums. At the end of 19th century, a Venetian origin was suggested, but their provenance is still debated. In this study, the enamel compositions from 22 enamelled copper products from Italian and French collections have been analysed by invasive and non‐invasive techniques. A comparison of the results with Tuscan and Venetian glass databases reinforces the suggestion of a Tuscan (most probably Florentine) origin for these works of art.     

How Mineralogy and Geochemistry Can Improve the Significance of Pb Isotopes in Metal Provenance Studies

Lead isotopes combined with trace element data represent a powerful tool for non‐ferrous metal provenance studies. Nevertheless, unconsidered geological factors and archaeological data, as well as ignored analytical procedures, may substantially modify the interpretation of the isotopic and trace element signature obtained as a potential ore candidate. Three archaeological examples, accompanied by high‐resolution lead isotopic measurements (MC–ICP–MS), are presented here to discuss the above‐mentioned criticisms and to propose some solutions. The first example deals with prehistoric/historical gold/silver‐mining activity from Romania (the Baia Bor?a and Ro?ia Montan? ore deposits). The second one regards the lead/silver metallurgical activity from the Mont‐Lozère massif (France) during medieval times. The third example focuses on the comparison between two batches of lead isotope data gathered on Roman lead ingots from Saintes‐Maries‐de‐la‐Mer, using different SRM 981 Pb values.     

IDENTIFYING THE PLANT ORIGIN OF ARTISTS' YELLOW LAKE PIGMENTS BY ELECTROSPRAY MASS SPECTROMETRY

Dyes containing flavonoids are found in yellow lake pigments used as artists' materials. Pre‐treating a sample of a flavonoid‐based lake pigment with an acidic ion exchange resin followed by reversed‐phase HPLC electrospray mass spectrometry enables the identification of key diagnostic yellow compounds, even when the pigment is bound in paint media. Reference raw plant materials of weld and buckthorn berries were also treated similarly for comparison with the lake pigments derived from these plants. This method is suitable for microsamples and thus suitable for analysis of samples that can be ethically removed from works of art in the course of their conservation. The flavonoid content is analysed and plant origins are suggested for yellow lake samples taken from Reclining Tiger by Jean‐Baptiste Oudry and the 1893 version of The Scream by Edvard Munch.     

The early roman imperial AES coinage II: Tracing the copper sources by analysis of lead and copper isotopes—copper coins of Augustus and Tiberius*

Lead and copper isotopes of Roman Imperial copper coins (denominations as and quadrans) were analysed by MC–ICP–MS. We concentrated on well‐dated coins minted at the official mint of Rome under the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius (between 16 bc and ad 37). The lead isotope results were compared with published lead isotope data of ore bodies from the Aegaean, Cyprus, Italy and Spain, in order to fingerprint the sources of Roman copper. During the Augustan period the main copper supply, as judged from the copper coins, is from Sardinia and south‐east Spain, with minor contributions from Tuscany. Except for Tuscany, this continued into the Tiberian period, when Cypriot copper also appears. Augustan quadrantes and late Tiberian asses came solely from the Rio Tinto area in south‐west Spain. Copper isotopes were applied here for the first time to systematic archaeometric studies. They are supplementary to lead isotopes and allow further grouping and classification of the copper coins.     

The history of the United States cent revealed through copper isotope fractionation

Copper isotope fractionation in United States cents traces changes in the source of copper and identifies historical events. Application of copper isotopes as a geochemical tracer requires consistent isotopic signatures of the ores and refined metals. Overlapping isotopic signatures of crushed ores, chalcocite and refined metal extracted from Morenci, Arizona indicate modern mining processes that produce distinguishable single ore deposit geochemical signatures. The coincidence of copper isotope ratios in metals and ore deposits also exists within the United States cents analyzed here. Specifically, historical records confirm two different sources for copper in cents from 1800 through 1867. The copper isotope composition of the 1828, 1830, 1836, 1838 and 1843 cents coincides with the Cornwall ores of England, and cents post 1850 (1859, 1862) correspond with the Michigan ores of the United States. Three of the thirty-six post 1867 cents measured possess fractionated copper isotope ratios and indicate the change in source of copper for the United States cent.     

AN EVALUATION OF ANALYTICAL AND INTERPRETATIVE METHODOLOGIES FOR THE EXTRACTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF LIPIDS ASSOCIATED WITH POTTERY SHERDS FROM THE SITE OF SAGALASSOS,TURKEY*

Three lipid analysis methods were applied to extracts of archaeological potsherds from the ancient city of Sagalassos, south‐west Turkey. In the fatty acid methyl ester fraction, obtained by selective transesterification of acylglycerols, the ratio of methyl palmitate to methyl stearate was determined. Secondly, by means of gas chromatography– combustion–isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC–C–IRMS), stable carbon isotope ratios were measured for the same methyl esters. Finally, triglyceride composition was determined via high‐performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS). All three methods can be used to trace the origin of animal fat. Agreement between them is reasonable, especially in recognizing ruminant adipose fat. One sample was found to be of dairy origin using both GC–C–IRMS and HPLC–MS. The advantages of the various methods are discussed. Variations in lipid composition were observed between samples from different periods and excavated in diverse areas within the city of Sagalassos.     

Institutions and Falsified Culture in the Novel Evening Act by Croatian Writer Pavao Pavličić

`In one area of his prose work, the Croatian writer Pavao Pavli?i? belongs to a group of writers in the 1970s who used a fantastic narrative model and thematized irrational parallel worlds as opposed to a realist model of narration. Pavli?i?’s novel Evening Act (published as Ve?ernji akt in 1981) has a realistic beginning, but it slips into fantastic narration when the main character, a young man called Mihovil, discovers his ability to falsify documents and works of art. At the same time, he is capable of recognizing falsified art works and documents that are accepted as an integral part of social, cultural, and historical memory. When this ability becomes dangerous, Mihovil falsifies his own body to escape from his unbearable reality. This paper will analyse the function of the fantastic model in Pavli?i?’s novel as a postmodern play with traditions of Croatian and world literature and culture. The ludic layer of the novel has a highly symbolic value: it draws attention to the relationship of cultural institutions and society to the authenticity of art works, the role of art, and ways of preserving (or destroying) cultural memory.     

AN ELEMENTAL AND LEAD‐ISOTOPIC STUDY ON BRONZE HELMETS FROM ROYAL TOMB NO. 1004 IN YIN RUINS

Lead isotope and element composition analyses were performed by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP–OES) on bronze helmets from royal tomb No. 1004 at Yin Ruins, the last capital of China's Shang Dynasty (17th to 11th centuries bc ). The data show that the copper‐based alloy helmets can be divided into two categories: tin bronze and leaded tin bronze; and the lead isotope ratios for both categories are in the range of highly radiogenic lead (HRL). This result offers some important clues to answering questions concerning the provenance of raw metal materials, as well as the chronology of this famous royal tomb.     

LEAD ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL METALS BY MULTIPLE‐COLLECTOR INDUCTIVELY COUPLED PLASMA MASS SPECTROMETRY*

Lead isotope ratios in archaeological silver and copper were determined by MC–ICPMS using laser ablation and bulk dissolution without lead purification. Laser ablation results on high‐lead metals and bulk solution analyses on all samples agree within error of TIMS data, suggesting that problems from isobaric interferences and/or mass bias variations due to the presence of matrix elements are insignificant. Inaccurate laser ablation analyses on low‐lead copper reflect erroneous mass bias corrections from use of a non‐matrix matched standard. However, in most cases, silver and copper are analysable for lead isotopes by bulk dissolution or laser ablation MC–ICPMS with simplified sample preparation.     

Quantification and the Scientific Study of History

Abstract

A survey of the illustrations in art history textbooks reveals that the most important Modern American painters, including Pollock, Johns, and Warhol, failed to produce individual paintings as famous as the masterpieces of a number of major French artists, such as Picasso, Manet, and Seurat. Analysis of the textbooks reveals that art historians do not consider the American artists to be less important than their French predecessors or judge the Americans' innovations to be less important. The absence of American masterpieces instead appears to be a consequence of market conditions. as changes over time in the primary methods of showing and selling fine art reduced the incentive for artists to produce important individual works. This study demonstrates that the study of markets is essential to a full understanding of the development of Modern art.     

‘THERE'S NO PLACE LIKE HOME’—NO ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR MOBILITY AT THE EARLY BRONZE AGE CEMETERY OF SINGEN,GERMANY

The Early Bronze Age necropolis of Singen (Hohentwiel), located near Lake Constance, represents a population from a period of technological transition in southwestern Germany. The site contains several graves with metal artefacts that originated in other parts of Central and Western Europe, and therefore these could be interpreted as being the graves of non‐local individuals. The purpose of this study was to investigate this possibility through the application of isotopic analysis. The ratios of strontium and oxygen isotopes in human enamel reflect the geological origin of food and drinking water consumed during enamel formation in early life stages. Additionally, the ratio of sulphur isotopes from bone collagen reflects the origin of foods consumed during the last 10–20 years of life of an adult individual. We used these three isotope systems to attempt to identify local and non‐local individuals at the site. We found that the isotope ratios of Sr, O and S of the humans were relatively homogeneous and generally correspond to the isotope signature of the local geology, climate and environment. We conclude that the sampled population is of local origin and does not show patterns of individual mobility, even though there is evidence for long‐distance trade and exchange of the metal artefacts at this site.     

Coupling lead isotope analysis and petrography to characterize fabrics of storage and trade containers from Hala Sultan Tekke (Cyprus)*

Lead isotopes, thin‐ and sherd‐section analyses are coupled on pottery‐vessel fragments excavated from the Late Bronze Age site of Hala Sultan Tekke (south‐east Cyprus) and representing fabrics used for the production of storage and trade containers. The fabrics of the sherds are first described according to general macroscopic observations. Based on the different fabrics identified, a petrographic analysis is carried out on thin sections and compared to lead isotope results on the same samples. This study shows that a specific fabric corresponds to a specific lead isotopic composition and proposes different sources for the various groups of associated sherds/fabrics. It also demonstrates the compatibility and complementarity of petrography and lead isotopes within pottery provenance study.     

ANALYSIS OF NASRID POLYCHROME CARPENTRY AT THE HALL OF THE MEXUAR PALACE,ALHAMBRA COMPLEX (GRANADA,SPAIN), COMBINING MICROSCOPIC,CHROMATOGRAPHIC AND SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS*†

The pigments, binders and execution techniques used by the Nasrids (1238–1492) to polychrome carpentry in the Hall of the Mexuar Palace at the Alhambra (Granada, Spain) were studied using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with EDX analysis, selective staining techniques and gas chromatography – mass spectrometry. This pioneering investigation presents the first results of a research project devoted to filling gaps in the knowledge of Nasrid art, traditionally approached by stylistic studies. Moreover, it is essential for the polychromy conservation of the studied artworks, and will help to clarify historical and painting uncertainties in the Alhambra monument. The palette consists of a limited range of colours: white (lead‐base pigment), red (cinnabar and red lead), blue (lapis lazuli), black (carbon‐based) and false gold (golden tin). Tempera grassa was the painting technique identified. Two types of grounds were used: (i) gypsum in calligraphy decoration for the false gold technique, and (ii) synthetic minium in geometric drawings in carpentry. Organic insulating layers of linseed oil were used between paint strata. Artists applied synthetic minium to protect the wood (Juglans regia and conifer) against attack by xylophages. To lighten the surface darkened by this ground layer, powdered tin was added to achieve a metallic lustre.