The Faragola Ceramic Collection: Ceramic Production,Consumption and Exchange in Seventh‐Century Apulia

A collection of 30 ceramic samples, 16 of coarse wares and 14 of fine painted wares, have been investigated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and neutron activation analysis. Further samples of clayey sediments, both locally outcropping and found within the settling tank, have been submitted to the same analytical techniques for comparison with the ceramic collection. The results demonstrated that local clayey sediments were used as received for the production of coarse wares. The same raw materials were sieved and/or refined by decantation for the production of fine painted wares, which, in fact, provided results that were perfectly comparable with those for the clayey raw materials found within the settling tank. The Faragola productions were distinguished from the neighbouring Apulian productions according to petrographic features (the presence of leucite‐bearing volcanic rocks and Mn‐rich wads) and their bulk chemical composition.     

焦作马村汉墓和白庄汉墓出土彩绘陶仓楼的科技分析

河南省焦作马村汉墓和白庄汉墓出土彩绘陶仓楼数量众多,类型丰富。为了科学保护修复彩绘陶仓楼,通过X射线衍射仪,X射线荧光分析仪,岩相分析,热膨胀测试等技术手段对这批彩绘陶仓楼进行了深入分析。研究发现,这批陶器为当地取土烧制的加砂陶,陶片结构较密实,器物制作以模为主,部分是模制后粘贴而成,吸水率和表气孔率较高,烧成温度和岩相分析发现陶片有釉化现象。研究成果可为后续保护修复处理彩绘彩绘陶仓楼提供参考和借鉴。     

Characterization and origin of black and red Magdalenian pigments from Grottes de la Garenne (Vallée moyenne de la Creuse-France): a mineralogical and geochemical approach of the study of prehistorical paintings

Pigments sampled from wall paintings and from crayons taken on the floor, at the Grottes de la Garenne (Saint-Marcel – Indre, France) have been analyzed and characterized by infrared spectroscopy, Raman micro-spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, ICP/MS and analytical TEM. The red pigment used for the wall paintings is mainly composed by hematite, clays, carbon matter and carbonates. Results on the red pigments show that the compositions of the paintings are similar to that of some crayons. Regarding these analyses, their origin is compatible with local siderolithic facieses. Analysis of black pigments shows that they are made of cryptomelane, pyrolusite, clays, carbonates and carbon matter. It shows also that paintings and some crayons compositions are compatible. On the contrary of red pigments, the origin of black pigments is probably allochtonous. Indeed, the traces of thallium detected in cryptomelane, the cerium anomaly and the absence of iron are not compatible with local facieses or other sites from the French Massif Central.     

新疆阿斯塔那唐墓出土彩塑的制作工艺和颜料分析

新疆阿斯塔那古墓群出土了大量的彩塑,为了解其制作工艺与彩绘颜料成分,采用显微激光拉曼光谱,结合剖面观察和能量色散X射线荧光光谱等科技手段,对出土于唐墓的6个样品进行了分析鉴定.结果表明,泥胎表面先用硬石膏做打底层,再施以彩绘,且彩绘颜料厚薄有异.所使用的红、黄、黑、白和绿色颜料有铅丹、密陀僧、朱砂和土红、雌黄、炭黑、硬石膏及氯铜矿等无机颜料,而粉色彩绘是由铅丹(或铅丹和密陀僧的混合物)与硬石膏调和而成,且密陀僧作为彩绘颜料在新疆是较早的发现.其最为重要的发现是蓝色彩绘为植物性染料——靛蓝.这一研究结果,为进一步的彩塑修复与保护方案的制订提供了有价值参考.     

甘肃省天水伏羲庙壁画颜料显微分析

为了解甘肃省天水伏羲庙壁画的制作工艺和颜料成分,采用偏光显微镜、显微拉曼光谱和扫描电子显微镜-能潜分析对6个样品进行了分析。结果表明,所使用的颜料为矿物质颜料,多为绿,白、红、蓝色等。其绿色颜料为人造碱式氯化铜,白色颜料碳酸钙,红色为朱砂和铅丹,蓝色颜料为青金石。     

Early Islamic pigments at Nishapur,north-eastern Iran: studies on the painted fragments preserved at The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Pigments appearing on ninth–twelfth-century AD-carved stucco, wall painting, and terracotta friezes excavated at Nishapur in north-eastern Iran were investigated by optical reflectance spectroscopy, micro X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (μ-XRF), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), micro-Raman spectroscopy (μ-Raman), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Many of the pigments identified including vermilion, red lead, hematite, limonite, carbon black, atacamite, calcite, and gypsum have been identified in previous studies of pigments used in later Islamic periods. However, a series of unusual pigments such as wulfenite, pyromorphite, phoenicochroite, and jarosite were also found in the present study. The association of kaolinite and alunite with limonite and other Fe-bearing yellow pigments points to a local provenance for these pigments. In addition, the presence of orpiment in the vermilion may be indicative that the vermilion was artificially manufactured. These findings suggest that pigment use and manufacturing during the ninth to eleventh centuries in Nishapur was still in a trial-and-error stage and the palette known from the twelfth century onwards had not yet been systematized.     

Physicochemical characterization and provenance of colouring materials from Akrotiri-Thera in relation to their archaeological context and application

An assemblage of approximately 500 colouring materials and objects related to their use, found in different contexts and forms at Akrotiri, Thera, was recently investigated. The items date to the Early, Middle and Late Cycladic Bronze Age (c. 3000?C1600 bc) and include materials or pigments found in their natural state, in specifically made forms or inside vessels. Some of the contexts do not provide any indication of the pigments?? use, storage, trade or application. Among the investigated materials, which include red and yellow ochres and blue riebeckite, are those that can be associated with pigments that were widely used in the past in wall paintings or to decorate pottery. There is also evidence for the selective use of purple pigments, which were derived from shellfish, in wall paintings. However, there are other raw colouring materials, such as lead pigments that have not been previously known to have been used in wall paintings or in any other applications during the prehistoric period in the Aegean. A thorough macro- and microscopic visual examination of the quality and morphology of these items enabled the identification of physical features (colour, homogeneity, grain size and shape) that indicate their nature or degree of processing. To identify the mineral composition of the pigments and to investigate their provenance from a geological perspective, quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was conducted. For those samples requiring additional information on their composition and for the refining or confirming of the XRD data, scanning electron microscopy combined with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), micro-Raman and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopies were performed. This work is part of a larger project, supported by Institute for Aegean Prehistory, that aims to clarify major archaeological queries that are not restricted to the identification of the nature, composition and provenance of the colouring materials but extend to aspects of their selection, preparation and application techniques used during the Early to the Late Bronze Age.     

Spectrochemical Characterization of Red Pigments Used in Classic Period Maya Funerary Practices

We studied the composition, colour chromaticity and form of application of red pigments in human bone samples from seven Classic period Lowland Maya sites. The samples were analysed by X‐ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X‐ray energy‐dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Colour was measured using conventional colour identification standards (Munsell) and reflectance spectroscopy. Cinnabar and hematite were identified as the pigments used. We conclude that the reflectance method has advantages over conventional visual results, as it provides precise, objective and quantifiable optical data to distinguish the chromaticity, colour saturation and brightness of the pigments.     

CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL ANALYSES OF GALLO-ROMAN WALL PAINTING FROM DIETIKON,SWITZERLAND

Around 90 samples of Roman wall painting dating from the first to the third century AD were analysed using different analytical techniques: X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, infrared spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectrometry, optical microscopy and physico-chemical tests. The identified pigments are: ash, calcite, carbon black, celadonite, cinnabar, Egyptian Blue, glauconite, goethite, hematite and red lead. Pigment mixtures were used to get other colours such as brown, pink or purple. Three types of plaster were used: a first, and most dominant, with river sand, a second with crushed tile for damp places and a third, to which cinnabar was exclusively applied, was prepared with crushed calcite crystals.     

馆藏唐代彩绘人物俑颜料分析与修复保护

为确定深圳博物馆藏唐代彩绘人物俑颜料的矿物成分,利用X射线荧光能谱仪、X-射线衍射仪等对这批俑的颜料成分进行了分析,结果表明:红色颜料为铅丹、朱砂;黑色颜料为无定形碳黑;白色颜料为铅白和高岭土等.同时,将其与陕西省内相关地区的彩绘陶俑或壁画颜料进行了对比,得知其所使用的颜料与后者基本一致.在此基础上,针对这批人物俑的保存现状,遵循最小干预等文物保护的基本原则,对其实施了表面附着物清理、拼对、粘接、修复补全等保护修复技术措施,使其恢复了原有面貌,取得了较为理想的保护效果.     

Wall Paintings from the Roman Emona (Ljubljana,Slovenia): Characterization of Mortar Layers and Pigments

This study concerns the investigation of mortar layers and pigments of wall paintings from the Roman town of Emona (Ljubljana, Slovenia). Fragments of wall paintings consist of up to three preserved mortar layers. The mineralogical–petrographic compositions of the mortars were determined by means of optical microscopy and FT–IR spectroscopy. The investigated samples were divided into several groups based on similar thicknesses of the mortar layer, the binder colour and the composition of an aggregate. Furthermore, the results of mercury intrusion porosimetry showed that mortar layers consisting of carbonate grains exhibited lower porosity with respect to layers with mainly silicate grains, which is attributed to the angular shapes of carbonate aggregate. This is in accordance with the drilling resistance measurement system test (DRMS), confirming that layers with angular carbonate grains are harder than those with addition of rounded silicate ones, due to the good packing effect. The wall paintings were mainly executed using the fresco technique, while for some details secco was used. The identified pigments were red and yellow ochre, green earth, Egyptian blue, carbon black and lime white; all of them belonged to the so‐called austere pigment, which is quite common in Roman wall paintings.     

PIGMENTS AND PLASTERS FROM THE ROMAN SETTLEMENT OF THAMUSIDA (RABAT,MOROCCO)

A total of 22 samples were taken both from plasters still in situ and from collapsed material recovered by French, Italian and Moroccan teams at the Roman settlement of Thamusida (Rabat, Morocco). The sample characterization was obtained using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, image analysis and Raman micro‐spectroscopy. Plaster aggregate was made using a mixture of sands and clays that outcrop nearby, while lime was probably produced using the local limestone crust, as was further verified for the mortars. The plasters from the bath complexes (public buildings) and the Temple à trois cellae (sacred building) were very poorly made, while those from areas VII and XX (private buildings) indicated the involvement of more expert masons. The pigments used were cinnabar, red ochre, yellow ochre, Egyptian blue, green earth, chalk white and carbon black. The overall manufacture was of low quality, and hence perfectly comparable to that observed in other Roman Provinces. With respect to Italy and to other Mediterranean Roman sites, Thamusida fits well within an aesthetic and technical koinè that differentiates sites of the Italian peninsula from those in the Provinces.     

RESEARCH ON THE PIGMENTS FROM PAINTED CERAMICS EXCAVATED FROM THE YANGQIAOPAN TOMBS OF THE LATE HAN DYNASTY (48 BC – AD 25)

The analysis of pigments on painted ceramics excavated from the Yangqiaopan Tombs of the late Western Han Dynasty was undertaken using optical microscopy (OM), micro‐Raman spectroscopy (μ‐RS), scanning electron microscopy with energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectrometry (SEM–EDS), X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy spectra (FTIR). The pigments were identified as red lead (Pb₃O₄), carbon (C), malachite [Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂], Chinese purple (BaCuSi₂O₆) and illite {[K,H₃O]Al₂Si₃AlO₁₀(OH)₂}. Fibrous materials were observed in some pigment samples. When observed by SEM, one showed a large amount of fibre in solidified gum, which indicated that gum of ramie could have been used as the binding medium to make the pigment particles adhere together. These results provide significant insights into the characteristics of these pigments in the Qin and Han Dynasties.     

显微镜探知中国古代颜料史

2003年2008年期间,采用光学显微镜对来自全国11个省和自治区超过30处的考古工地和文博单位的彩绘文物颜料进行了分析和研究,勾勒出中国古代颜料应用的历史轮廓：本文将中国颜料应用史分成三部分论述,先秦至两汉、魏晋南北朝到清代中期、清代晚期。每个时期颜料的应用和彩绘的工艺均有各自的特点,文章配有大量精美的显微照片配合说明。先秦至两汉以中国蓝中国紫为代表,表现出当时科技活动的活跃,秦代骨白的应用也是一个有趣的例子;魏晋南北朝到清代中期是颜料发展史的平和期,这一时期构建起中国传统颜料的体系,未有太大的变化,惟有元代开始应用的苏麻离青颜料是一个关注点;清代晚期。西方工业合成颜料大量涌入是这个时期的显著特点。     

陕西安康紫阳北五省会馆壁画颜料分析研究

陕西安康紫阳北五省会馆壁画是目前陕西省境内发现的最大的一处建筑壁画,为了解其颜料组成,本工作采用X射线荧光、偏光显微镜、X射线衍射、激光显微拉曼光谱及扫描电镜能谱分析相结合的分析方法,对颜料样品进行了分析。结果表明,北五省会馆壁画除正殿发现一处红色染料外,其他均为无机颜料;红色颜料主要是铅丹、朱砂、铁红;绿色颜料为氯铜矿、石绿、斜氯铜矿;蓝色颜料的主要成分是普鲁士蓝、smalt、石青;黄色颜料为雌黄、铁黄;褐色颜料的主要成分是铁红及铅丹的变色产物二氧化铅;黑色为炭黑;白色颜料主要是铅白,且多使用铅白作为调色颜料。研究结果对于了解清代民间壁画的制作工艺,丰富对陕西建筑壁画的认识具有重要意义。     

Cooking Pots as Burial Urns

Abstract

Large ceramic vessels used as burial urns occasionally have been found in Late Mississippian/protohistoric contexts in Alabama and Mississippi. Ethnohistorical documents suggest that large vessels were used for cooking in a domestic context. A systematic examination of three urns from east-central Mississippi shows multiple uses prior to their final deposition with burials. Vessel size analysis of a temporal sequence of sherds from midden contexts used sherd thickness and curvature data to show that large vessels became more common. Three explanations are examined to better understand the use of large vessels during this time: bet hedging, costly signaling, and changing technology. The results confirm the use of burial urns in domestic contexts before their final use as interment containers, making technological change the most viable of the three hypotheses.     

秦始皇帝陵园出土彩绘青铜水禽表面彩绘工艺研究

为全面了解秦始皇帝陵园出土青铜水禽表面彩绘装饰工艺的技术内涵,利用显微观察、偏光显微鉴定、拉曼光谱分析等手段,对秦始皇帝陵园K0007陪葬坑出土彩绘青铜水禽表面彩绘装饰工艺进行了系统的考察和研究。研究结果显示,白色颜料为骨白,黑色颜料为炭黑;彩绘层为多层绘制而成,在结构上与秦陵出土陶俑、陶马表面彩绘具有明显区别;彩绘绘制技法包括平涂及堆绘两种,其中堆绘主要用于羽毛纹路羽轴的绘制,施彩工具可能为毛笔或毛刷。彩绘作为青铜器的装饰工艺主要出现于秦汉时期,但并没有得到广泛应用,可能与彩绘装饰自身的脆弱性以及青铜器的功能由礼容器转变为实用器有关。     

山东临淄山王村俑坑出土陶质彩绘颜料初步分析

2008年5月山东临淄山王村俑坑出土了数量较多的彩绘陶质文物,为了了解彩绘颜料结构和成分,采用粉末偏光显微法、剖面观察结合拉曼光谱分析对彩绘文物表面颜料样品进行分析。结果表明,这批陶质文物表面彩绘是以白灰做地仗层,由碳酸钙、白土、铁黑（Fe₃O₄）、铁红（Fe₂O₃）、朱砂等颜料调和而成,且厚度不均。在个别样品中发现了少量的中国蓝颗粒(BaCuSi₄O₁₀),这是这次分析中较为重要的发现,此分析结果也可为考古研究提供科学信息。     

山东危山西汉墓出土陶器彩绘颜料研究

为研究山东危山西汉墓出土彩绘陶器颜料成分,采用偏光显微镜、显微拉曼光谱仪和扫描电子显微镜-能谱仪进行了分析。研究结果显示,危山汉墓陶器彩绘颜料有朱砂、铅丹、中国紫(汉紫BaCuSi2O6)、铁红、铁黑、白土等。中国紫颜料首次在山东省的发现,扩大了该颜料的使用区域,具有重要的考古学意义。另外,还在紫色颜料中分析出了BaCu2Si2O7蓝色晶体,这是继中国蓝中国紫之后的又一重大发现。     

陕西蓝田水陆庵彩绘泥塑颜料分析研究

水陆庵位于陕西蓝田王顺山下,庵内现存三百余平方米精美绝伦的明代彩绘泥塑,是我国泥塑保存最多、最完整的明代彩绘泥塑群之一。为明确水陆庵彩绘泥塑的颜料使用情况,采用光学显微镜、X射线衍射仪、显微红外光谱仪、扫描电镜-能谱仪和显微拉曼光谱仪对颜料样品进行科学分析。结果表明,除中隔壁背面重妆区域的蓝色颜料主要成分是普鲁士蓝之外,水陆庵彩塑使用的颜料大多为矿物颜料,包括铅丹、朱砂、铁红、氯铜矿、雌黄和云母等。研究结果将为水陆庵后续保护修复提供科学依据,并为丰富关中地区明代彩绘泥塑颜料类型补充科学信息。