Petrology and Geochemistry of Late Intermediate Period Ceramics,Southern Peru

Multiple petrological and geochemical analytical techniques revealed significant similarities in element and mineral distribution between the 47 ceramic samples from Chillo (southern coast, Peru), a Late Intermediate Period (ad 1000–1400) archaeological site. The similarity indicates a common raw material source. The analytical results of Holocene fluvial sediment samples, Cretaceous clay layers and fired and non‐fired bricks, only eliminated the Cretaceous clay layers as a potential source material. Applying Raman spectroscopy, the red and violet colour of the slip is due to hematite, the yellow colour to a mixture of hematite, graphite and gypsum, and the black colour is either graphite or jacobsite.     

明清临清贡砖生产及其社会影响

明清两代修建北京皇宫各大殿和紫禁城城墙,以及皇家陵寝所用大青砖,绝大部分是山东临清州烧造。从明初到清末的四五百年中,临清因京杭大运河的贯通而成为北方重要的工商业城市和漕运咽喉,又因其便利的交通和适宜的土质等特殊优势成为明清两朝的贡砖烧造基地。临清的贡砖生产虽间有停废,但一直受到朝廷的严格掌控,形成了一套系统的管理制度和生产方式。大规模的贡砖烧造一方面促进了临清工商业的繁荣和生产结构的改变,同时也加重了民众和漕运官军负担,对明清时期的临清社会带来了巨大的影响。     

Raw or Pre-Fired: Kiln Construction at Sawankhalok,North Central Thailand,as a Guide to Ceramic History

Sawankhalok, located in north central Thailand, was an early stoneware ceramic production site where the first kilns were dug cave-like into the natural ground, a method used in China for thousands of years. After a century or so, kilns at Sawankhalok began to be constructed of brick. It is suggested that if the bricks were pre-fired then an external influence may have been responsible. To the contrary, if raw unfired clay was used in the construction of the kilns the evolution was more likely a consequence of conceptual continuity.With the aid of chemical and mineralogical analyses it is shown that the kiln bricks were unfired at the time of kiln construction thereby suggesting that traditional conservatism, apparent in many aspects of the industry, caused processes to remain unaltered in the absence of a persuasive reason for change. These conclusions reflect on the degree of indigenous technology and artistic development associated with Sawankhalok ceramics as opposed to external influence.     

战国秦汉时期制铁耐火材料的矿物组织与含量分析

战国秦汉时期是中国古代生铁与生铁制钢技术体系的发端与形成期,制铁耐火材料为发达的生铁与生铁制钢技术体系提供了结构、化学、热性能上的技术保障,具有重要的作用。但目前制铁耐火材料的研究较少,影响了对中国古代钢铁技术的全面认识。本研究对战国秦汉时期出土的制铁耐火材料开展了文献、田野考察和矿相分析,科学认知其微观结构,认为战国秦汉时期制铁耐火材料以黏土质材料为主,使用了砂质材料,但尚未出现砂泥混合质材料。同时,炉壁、铸铁范、鼓风管之间的矿物显微组织和含量差异较大,表明战国秦汉时期工匠已能根据性能需求的不同制作不同的耐火材料用于不同的制铁生产环节。     

Schmidt hammer rebound hardness tests for the characterization of ancient fired clay bricks

This article presents results of non-destructive Schmidt hammer tests performed on ancient fired clay bricks sampled from historical masonry. These tests were carried out in order to evaluate, and compare, the different degrees of degradation, depending on the bricks’ specific exposures and locations within a wall. The results indicate that this technique is sensitive enough to distinguish sample locations and measure weathering differences, even for different surfaces of a particular sample. For each case study, referenced surfaces were tested for bricks from a facade or interior wall. Each surface was tested with a Schmidt hammer type LB at ten different points of measurement, and these measurements were repeated ten times. For each impact at a particular point, a mean rebound value was calculated to provide an index of the degree of brick-surface microweathering.     

Trace element fingerprinting of ceramic building material from Carpow and York Roman fortresses manufactured by the VI Legion

Trace element compositions of raw clay, fired clay and Roman ceramic building material (CBM) from Carpow Roman fortress, Newburgh, Scotland and the city of York, England have been determined through the use of inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICPMS). It is confirmed that the firing of clay does not disturb any of the sample’s trace element composition and that trace element protolith identification is an applicable tool for fingerprinting the source of material used in CBM construction. It is also demonstrated through the particular proportions of LREE/HREE; Th/Co; La/Sc; La/Lu; Eu/Sm values on CBM from Carpow that these material were likely manufactured from clay used in the York Roman tile manufacturing industry, therefore suggesting importation. The transport of CBM from York to Carpow provides a useful addition to known examples of the long-distance shipping of CBM. It is postulated that similar analysis to that conducted here could be used to identify important trade networks within the Roman Empire.     

Paper 6: Grouting Mortars for Fragmented Bricks and Repair Mortars for Tiles in the Archaeological Site Coudenberg

Abstract

Different grouting and repair mortars were developed and evaluated for the conservation and restoration of fragmented bricks in the walls and floors of the remaining cellars underneath the Aula Magna, the palace’s main banqueting hall, and to fill the lacunae and perform edge repairs of red and blue-grey ceramic floor tiles in the remaining cellars underneath the chapel of the former Palace of Coudenberg in Brussels, Belgium.

To prevent the deposition of lime bloom at the surface of the masonry and to achieve an acceptable colour match of the grout in harmony with the bricks of the Aula Magna, the effect of brick powder added to natural hydraulic lime was studied. The pozzolanic properties and colour match of several historic and modern powdered bricks were investigated. Surprisingly, ancient bricks do not seem to possess higher pozzolanic properties than the more modern ones, although it is supposed that they were fired at lower temperatures. Additional evidence for the pozzolanic reaction of the different brick powder materials was obtained from a simple visual observation of stored samples. After eight weeks all of the samples containing brick powders, fired at low and high temperatures, added to putty lime had hardened under water and were transformed into a remarkably tough material. These results are important, as modern bricks are readily available in large quantities and different colours, which are hence in favour of being used instead of historical material from the site.

For the repair of the ceramic floor tiles different mortars were investigated with mixtures containing talcum, stone or brick powder, pigments, and chalk added to an epoxy binder. The mortars were tested in the laboratory and in situ for their workability and resemblance with the historic floor tiles. The finished mortars showed excellent aesthetic properties with the tiles in situ and good properties to prevent further loss due to human interaction.     

Factors Determining Magnetic Enhancement of Burnt Clay from Archaeological Sites

The magnetic susceptibility of a collection of 212 archaeological samples of burnt clay of different origin (burnt soil, ovens and bricks) taken from 60 archaeological sites from Bulgaria, were studied in order to determine factors which may have affected their magnetic enhancement. The highest magentic susceptibility values were obtained for bricks, and the lowest for burnt soils, suggesting that the firing temperature and the duration of burning are important conditions for determining magnetic enhancement. Specific spatial pattern of the low-field magnetic susceptibility was also observed, characterized by separation of sites situated in northern and southern parts of the country, divided by the west-east trending mountain chain Stara Planina. Maximum susceptibility values are obtained for burnt soils in southern Bulgaria and minima in northern Bulgaria. In contrast, burnt clay plasters and bricks show the opposite picture. It is supposed that the observed pattern is due to differences in the outcropped geological formations and variable climate conditions between the two regions which determine different iron-supply during burning of initial clay material. Results from the thermomagnetic analyses show that the dominant ferrimagnetic mineral in all burnt clay materials studied, is magnetite/titanomagnetite with low Ti content and different grain-sizes. High values of frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility indicate the presence of significant amount of fine-grained (d<0·015 μm) superparamagnetic magnetite.     

Firing temperature of a clay core sample in a bronze tripod from Daxinzhuang Site in China using TL techniques

In this paper, we studied the thermal history of a clay core sample from one leg of a bronze tripod unearthed at Daxinzhuang Site, Shandong, China. The properties of the luminescence signals of quartz depend on the maximum temperature at which the quartz was annealed in the past. We examined the feasibility of measuring the thermoluminescence (TL) sensitivity change of quartz for exploring the firing temperature of archaeological materials. The sensitization factor of the 110°C TL peak (S₂/S₁) and the ratio of the 210°C TL peak to the 110°C TL peak at different annealing temperatures were utilized to unveil the firing temperature in the clay core sample. The firing temperature of the clay core sample was approximately 700°C–800°C, proving the clay core has been fired. This result proved that the clay core has been fired by human agencies and indicated on the temperature of the clay core in drying and firing given by the foundry workers before the actual casting step.     

MINERALOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF MEDIEVAL BRICK SAMPLES FROM BÉKÉS COUNTY (SE HUNGARY)

Brick samples from nine archaeological sites representing seven contemporary medieval settlements in Békés County (SE Hungary) were analysed by quantitative X‐ray powder diffraction, optical microscopic, scanning electron microscopic and coupled thermal analytical – evolved gas analytical methods. The aims of this study were to give a mineralogical–petrographical characterization of the brick samples, to gain possible information on the raw clay and the admixed materials, and to determine the firing techniques applied in medieval southeastern Hungary. The mineralogical composition of the samples suggests that the locally extracted clay was mixed with fluvial sand and wheat (Triticum monococcum L.) chaff. The moulded bricks were fired in clamps. The different degrees of calcite consumption suggest that the firing temperature ranged from ～750°C to ～950°C. Moreover, the well‐developed reaction coronas on calcite grains indicate long firing times, lasting perhaps several days.     

Characterization of bricks and tiles from the 17th-century brick Chapel,St. Mary's City,Maryland

The brick Chapel at St. Mary's City, Maryland, built around 1667, would have been an impressive structure on a colonial frontier where all the other buildings were built only of wood. While the building is no longer extant, the bricks remaining in the buried foundations hold information about the technologies and materials used by brickmakers in the 17th-century Chesapeake region. Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and petrographic analysis of thin sections were used to compare the Chapel bricks and other 17th-century bricks and tiles from several Chesapeake contexts to locally available clay sources. While the composition of the Chapel bricks is generally consistent with that of clays available in southern Maryland, these historic materials could not be linked to any one deposit, and may reflect the mixing of clays from multiple sources. In contrast, building materials from other 17th-century buildings at St. Mary's City could be more precisely “matched” to specific local clay deposits. This paper reports on our initial investigations toward understanding the technology of the Chapel bricks and their relationship to other bricks from St. Mary's City.     

江西地区的六朝瓷器——以洪州窑为中心

江西陶瓷文化源远流长,一万多年前的万年仙人洞的先民就烧制出了世界上最早的绳纹红陶,商周时期的吴城遗址和角山窑址成功地创烧了原始瓷。此后,青瓷的制作和生产在江西从未间断过。本文以洪州窑的兴起、兴盛和发展为线索结合当时的社会历史背景和墓葬材料阐述了江西地区六朝时期各个阶段瓷器的基本特征和演变规律。     

Dung-tempered Clay

Abstract

Cow manure was added to clay and fired in an electric kiln to examine its effect on the plasticity and firing ability of the clay. Two firing temperatures were tried. The experiment and the results are reported here. Dung was used. and continues to be used. as a tempering material and additive to increase plasticity in pottery around the world.     

安徽新石器时代绘彩陶器

安徽新石器时代的绘彩陶器可分为彩陶和彩绘陶两类,前者主要分布在淮河流域和皖西,而后者则主要分布在皖西南一带。其年代从距今七千多年前一直延续到距今四千多年前,可分为四期。皖西南是我国彩绘陶发生年代较早的一个区域。     

汉代平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱工艺的研究

平板范竖式浇铸工艺是我国早期铸钱的基本形式,根据材质的不同,可将平板范分为石范、陶范和金属范.由于与平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱相关遗物出土数量少,该方法不是汉代铸钱工艺中的主要方法,故目前还未对其开展系统的研究.本工作对平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱相关遗物进行了归类分析.表明该工艺不仅在西汉早期一直在使用着,到东汉时期,仍然被用于铸钱.通过模拟实验对汉代的平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱工艺进行了研究,其工艺过程为:铸造金属制范模,在模上翻制陶范,陶范经阴干焙烧后铸造钱币.金属制范模的制作,提高了陶范制作的效率,同时也保证了钱币在型腔尺寸和文字上的一致性.     

Chemical analysis of white porcelains from the Ding Kiln site, Hebei Province, China

The Ding kilns were some of the most famous early kilns of medieval China, producing huge quantities of white and cream-white porcelains of outstanding technical and aesthetic quality. Since 1949 they have been excavated three times, in 1965, in 1987, and in 2009 respectively. In this latest study 69 white porcelain sherds from assured contexts and from the 2009 excavations were analyzed using laser ablation techniques (ICP-AES). The samples date from Five Dynasties, Northern Song and Jin Dynasties respectively (early 10^th to early 13^th C CE). The results show that Ding wares of different times show different characteristics that can be demonstrated through chemical composition. During the early phase of production the Ding ware bodies consisted largely of high firing kaolinitic clays with predominantly calcareous materials as fluxes. After the early Northern Song Dynasty, some calcareous material was replaced by a more potassic material. The compositions of the glazes show a parallel evolution to the bodies. However, because the glazes are very low in titania it seems unlikely that the main clay ingredients of the bodies could have been used in the glaze recipes. For much of the kiln site’s history the glazes appear to have been made mainly from the same siliceous flux-rich materials that had been blended with the main body-clays used to make the Ding ware porcelains, plus some extra calcareous material. The P₂O₅ contents of the glazes suggest that wood ash may have been one source of CaO in the glaze recipes.     

The Chinese Upper Paleolithic: Geography, Chronology, and Techno-typology

This article reviews the archaeology and chronology of the Chinese Upper Paleolithic and the human fossils attributed to this period. The onset of the Upper Paleolithic in China dates to ca. 35,000–30,000 years ago and is marked by the appearance of a few body decorations and well-shaped bone tools that were added to stone tool assemblages, including core-and-flake tools in North China and cobble tools in South China. The proliferation of blade assemblages in northwest China is interpreted as the cultural impact or the physical presence of bearers of blade industries from western Eurasia. The ensuing appearance of microblade assemblages in North China by 23,000–22,000 years ago reflects the use of local siliceous crystalline nodules by a population that recognized the advantages of this raw material. At that time in South China, prehistoric artisans continued to shape their stone objects from the available flat river cobbles. During the later part of the Chinese Upper Paleolithic (ca. 21,000–10,000 BP), foragers also made bone tools, antler objects, pottery, and shell tools, which laid the technological foundations for the early Neolithic period. One difficulty in this research is that human fossils are rare. Few are well dated and morphological, cultural, and biological interpretations are hotly debated. Our review attempts to facilitate the understanding of a poorly known period in Chinese archaeology and its place in human cultural evolution.     

Building materials from Thamusida (Rabat,Morocco): a diachronic local production from the Roman to the Islamic period

A total of 67 bricks and tiles found in different archaeological contexts during excavations at Thamusida have been investigated here. The first analysed set consists of 27 bricks found in the area of an Islamic ceramic workshop, which was active at Thamusida from the 8th century onwards. The second set of 40 bricks and tiles was found mostly in situ. They date to the Roman occupation of the site (1st-3rd century AD). Thirteen of them bear different types of stamps. In addition, two types of clay (7 samples) from the surrounding area were analysed as reference for the materials used in the local ceramic production. The samples were investigated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence. The results allowed reconstructing two local productions of building materials: one during Roman and one during Islamic times, both using local grey tirs (without any manipulation or temper additions) as raw materials. Imports were further identified, tracing both short- and medium-range trade connections. Banasa could be addressed as a likely production site of bricks stamped QAP and APP, while the bay of Tangiers should be indicated as a likely provenance of bricks stamped C∞ and HADRIAVG.     

Thermoluminescence dating

Over the last few years the Nordic Laboratory for Thermoluminescence (TL) Dating has obtained TL dates for a considerable number of archaeological samples, ceramics, bricks, burnt clay and burnt stones from the Nordic countries. The majority of TL dates have been consistent and in agreement with other dating evidence. Discrepancies caused primarily by excessive short‐term fading of the latent TL signal were encountered in a few cases. A procedure for eliminating errors caused by short‐term fading is described. A brief discussion of the sources of error in TL dating is given. Finally, results obtained by TL are compared with those obtained by radiocarbon for a number of sites.     

传统泥质铸型处理技术探源

金属成形加工技术是人类文明的杰出贡献,在中国,传统金属加工技术门类繁多,其中发展最深、应用最广的首推铸造技术。考古发掘与文物研究证明：中国悠远灿烂的青铜文化其基础为铸造技术,而泥质铸型处理技术又是中国传统铸造技术的关键之一。本文拟通过现存传统泥质铸型处理技术的研究、古代文献资料的分析、出土泥质铸型（陶范）的科学测试,对中国传统泥质铸型处理技术的形成作初步探源工作。