罗马帝国的地方政府——以不列颠为例

本文通过分析罗马政府在不列颠的运作以揭示元首制时期罗马行省体系的运作机制。对总督及代理官任命之考察表明,罗马官员具有非职业性,他们生活在相对固定的晋升体系中,一生需要出任诸多不同职位,并没有为出任某个职位接受专门训练,所以无法发展出专业行政知识。此外,元首制时期官僚机构尚未增生,行省中罗马官员的数量屈指可数。这些都为地方自治开辟了空间。在某些罗马势力不易渗透的地方,地方自治政府在征服初期以藩属国的形式出现。随着时机成熟,藩属国作为一种权宜之计逐渐被具有高度自治权的城市所代替。城市里的地方官员在刑事案件之审理和直接税之征收方面发挥了重要作用。尽可能把行政负担转嫁到地方政府身上是罗马帝国正常运转的奥秘所在。     

Neotaphonomic measures of carnivore serial predation at Ngamo Pan as an analog for interpreting open-air faunal assemblages

Here I present a neotaphonomic account of natural bone accumulations that have resulted from carnivore serial predation at Ngamo Pan, a vast complex of seasonal water holes located in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Reconstructing the taphonomic histories of faunal assemblages from open-air archaeological sites is burdened with a host of interpretive complications, and this study is offered as a referential means for evaluating instances where stone tools and bone accumulations are associated in apparent archaeological contexts. While the presence of stone tools implies some involvement on the part of humans, open-air sites near water would also have served as prime locations for serial predation by large carnivores to ambush prey—a situation that, over time, can mimic archaeological bone accumulations. The taphonomic and zooarchaeological signatures of carnivore serial predation at Ngamo Pan show marked similarities with the open-air faunal accumulation from Kalkbank, a late Pleistocene site in Limpopo Province, South Africa, located along the margins of a relict pan. Many potential archaeological sites within the interior of southern Africa dating to the Middle Stone Age are known from open-air settings near permanent or ephemeral bodies of water, and the ability to decipher between hominin and non-hominin carnivore involvement with bone accumulations is paramount in determining the hunting and scavenging behaviors of our early ancestors. As much of our understanding of hominin subsistence during the Middle Stone Age is drawn from coastal cave locations, this study is intended to encourage a broadening of our perspective on the taphonomic histories of faunal accumulations dating to the Middle Stone Age by incorporating supplementary evidence provided by these open-air sites.     

浅谈田野考古动物遗存采集

田野考古动物遗存采集是动物考古学研究的关键环节之一,受人为控制,本文着重讨论了采集过程、采集方法和注意事项,旨在推进采集的规范化、科学性和完整度,为深入开展动物考古学研究提供良好的原始资料。     

罗马共和国时期的道路建设

罗马共和国时期的道路建设在罗马社会中占有重要地位,也是罗马国家生活中的重要内容之一。罗马道路建设的根本原因在于军事扩张的需要,政治和经济方面的考虑并不多。共和国时期的道路建设主要在意大利本土进行,并呈现出鲜明的特色。这一时期的道路建设对罗马的政治、经济和文化方面都产生了重要的影响,对它进行研究有助于我们从另一角度考察罗马社会。     

The Roman Harbour of Alexandria Troas,Turkey

This article summarizes the results of a survey conducted in the area of the ancient harbour of Alexandria Troas. It presents an outline reconstruction of the harbour and explains its significance for our understanding of the region. The harbour is located at the point where two important sea‐routes met and where ships waited for favourable winds to travel through the Dardanelles. It was built in the reign of Augustus and consisted of an outer basin protected by two breakwaters and an inner basin. The area was occupied until the beginning of the 7th century. © 2010 The Author     

罗马帝国时期石头彩饰概述

直到近些年来系统的研究才使人们对罗马帝国时期雕塑上的色彩装饰及其技术有了一定的了解。仔细的分析使一些著名艺术品的色彩得以重现。比如现存于梵蒂冈博物馆的AugustusofPrimaPorta雕像以及the marble revetment of the end wall of the so-called Aula del Colosso in the Augustus Forum in Rome。现在对和平祭坛博物馆颜料的研究也在进行之中。在这个纪念碑中,色彩并不是完全按照现实的方式来标志被塑形象的地位或者来强调救济的政治信息的。不过这并不是一个大致的结论,因为同时代的其他雕塑如在哥本哈根的嘉士伯艺术博物馆里的卡里古拉大帝的肖像,则将注意力更多的放在了色彩的自然效果上。许多有趣的新发现同样来源于对大理石上装饰的关注。在古希腊时代有三种流行的装饰曾经被用到过（尽管在后帝国时期我们可以鉴别出更多的类型和简约化的风格）,尤其是在丧葬礼上。在这个领域,在激光的帮助下,新的保护技术使得重要的发现变成可能。从技术的角度来看有机颜料的重要性比如紫胶染料和湛蓝染料——变得越来越相关。紫色的应用只在亚马逊人的石棺（佛罗伦萨国家博物馆中的公元前四世纪的一个伊特拉斯堪人的石棺）中被发现过。粘合剂知识的进展也同样被关注。以后有必要详细制定一些关于分析和公布结果的标准程序来增加对比以及统计处理的可能性。     

关于罗马-高卢城市兴起的几个因素

罗马的高卢行省深受帝国城市化运动的影响,在城市兴起与发展的过程中独具特征。在某种意义上,高卢城市的兴起与发展带动了整个帝国城市化运动的发展。促进高卢城市兴起有几个因素,即高卢原有的城市因素——奥必达、希腊殖民地的城市因素和罗马化的城市因素,对这些因素在高卢城市兴起的历史进程中彼此继承改造的关系、融合的过程和具备的创新意义等展开具体分析,有助于认识高卢城市兴起的基本条件和历史动因,进一步加深对罗马帝国城市化运动性质的理解。     

The Marausa Wreck,Sicily: interim report on a boat built in the Western Imperial Roman tradition

In 1991, the wreck of a late 3rd–early 4th century AD Roman merchant vessel was discovered on the west coast of Sicily that had carried North African amphora, tubuli, and other ceramics. The hull was dismantled and raised in 2011, including a keel hook‐scarfed to stem and sternposts, 39 pegged mortise‐and‐tenon joined planks, 43 frames with an irregular pattern of floor‐timbers, half‐timbers, and futtocks fastened to the planking with treenails and copper nails, sister‐keelsons and evidence of two stringers, 36 ceiling strakes, and the base of a bilge pump. Many repairs are indicated. The fairly flat bottom and round bilges, mortise‐and‐tenons, sister‐keelsons and lack of a coherent framing pattern, place the boat in the Western Imperial tradition.     

波里比阿论古典罗马共和国政制

本文重点探讨波里比阿的混合政体及其与罗马共和国政治生活实际的关系。首先讨论了波里比阿有关单纯政体产生、堕落和循环的理论,在此基础上,考察了他关于罗马共和政体乃混合政体、混合政体相对稳定的观念以及混合性质在罗马政体中的具体表现,并对波里比阿的理论与罗马共和国政治实际之间的关系进行了讨论,指出波里比阿理想化的论述与共和国的实际之间存在一定差距。本文指出,波里比阿已经意识到混合政体像单纯政体一样,注定会走向衰落,尽管速度相对缓慢。他有关斯奇庇奥美德的描述,正反衬了波里比阿时代罗马道德的普遍堕落。     

罗马时代的信仰危机

异教时期的罗马国教具有公共性、反个人崇拜及相对宽容等特点。自从元首政治建立之后,随着东方思想的大量涌入,有关个人灵魂拯救的秘传崇拜开始打破公共崇拜对于信仰领域的垄断;皇帝崇拜日益冲击着城邦宗教中的共和与民主传统;与此同时,帝国政府对于异己思想表现得越来越不宽容。这种信仰危机随着3世纪社会总危机的爆发而日益加剧,其最直接的后果就是造成了普遍的道德危机。基督教的崛起有效地缓解了公共崇拜与私人信仰之间的张力,彻底瓦解了个人崇拜赖以存在的基础,并用一套全新的伦理原则重塑了社会的道德模式,因而最终结束了这场长达四百年之久的信仰危机。     

The development and operation of Roman hypocausted baths

Hypocausted baths represent physical systems which are susceptible to theoretical and practical examination. A consideration of the development of the hypocaust gives an idea of the state of the art at the time of the Roman occupation of Britain. It also explains why the importance of baths in the history of architecture, usually taken as being almost axiomatic, is determined by comfort physics. A number of problems in the way of a simple theoretical calculation of the fuel consumption is examined, and a calculation of the order of the requirements of a small rural establishment is attempted. The social and ecological implications are briefly touched upon.     

The Roman Shipwreck of Antirhodos Island in the Portus Magnus of Alexandria,Egypt

Between 1998 and 1999 three excavation campaigns were undertaken on a shipwreck at the now‐submerged site of the ancient Portus Magnus, off the coast of Alexandria. The site, close to the island of Antirhodos, was identified through geophysical and archaeological surveys carried out by the Institut Européen d’Archéologie Sous‐Marine (IEASM), directed by Franck Goddio. The remains of the ship lie c.5 m deep and are spread over c.350 sqm. No cargo has been found. Artefacts recovered, the details of the ship's architecture and radiocarbon dating all suggest it sunk between the end of the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. Its dimensions correspond to those of commercial ships of the Roman era. Identification of the wood used contributes significantly to our knowledge of materials used in naval architecture of this period.     

Neandertal foraging during the late Mousterian in the Pyrenees: new insights based on faunal remains from Gatzarria Cave

This article presents the initial results of a new study of faunal remains from Gatzarria Cave, a Middle-to-Upper Palaeolithic transition site the Pyrenees of southwestern France (department of the Pyrénées Atlantiques). This study attempts to document diet breadth during the late Mousterian, while paying due attention to recently identified problems regarding the stratigraphic context of the assemblages. The faunal analysis focuses on a subset of late Mousterian faunal remains from layer Cj at the site. Taphonomic analysis suggests that humans were the primary bone accumulators. The assemblage is dominated by a single large-bodied species, red deer; smaller-bodied ungulates are poorly represented. Skeletal part representation indicates that within-bone nutrients contained in marrow were probably a key resource for these foragers. The overall pattern of remains is interpreted as evidence of narrow-spectrum foraging, a pattern which appears to be repeated at other Mousterian sites in the Pyrenees region. This may mean that local Neandertal populations existed at relatively low densities. However, this suggestion must be tempered by the fact that settlement patterns, including occupation seasonalities and site functions, are not yet well understood for this region.     

Determining the settlement history of Hellenistic,Roman, and Byzantine sites in the Galilee,Israel: Comparing surface,subsurface, and stratified artifact assemblages

Abstract

Archaeological field survey is the basic method for determining the history of settlement on the regional level. The backbone of survey is locating and surveying individual sites, estimating their size, and uncovering their settlement histories. Various biases place doubt on the reliability of surface data and the conclusions drawn from them. This study presents three methods for investigating multiperiod sites in eastern Galilee, Israel: advanced surface survey, shovel test sampling, and large-scale stratigraphic excavations. Advanced surface survey was carried out at 46 sites settled during the Hellenistic through Byzantine periods (ca. 300 b.c.–a.d. 650). Three of these sites were later sampled using shovel test pits. Large-scale excavations were conducted at two of these sites, Khirbet Wadi ?amam and Nasr ed-Din enabling the comparison of the three methods. Applying these three methods to the same sites allowed us to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each method for determining settlement history. The results indicate that a thorough surface survey of a site in an area where local pottery is well documented can provide a clear picture of its occupation history. However, these data are not sufficient to determine variations in the size of the site over time. Shovel test sampling presents no advantage over surface survey with regard to documenting periods of activity at a given site, but it is preferable for tracing changes in the intensity of occupation during different periods. Excavation is the most informative method, but because it is costly and time consuming, it often sheds light only on small portions of selected sites.     

The domestic fowl and other birds from the Roman site of Mons Claudianus,Egypt

At the Roman quarry settlement of Mons Claudianus in the Eastern Desert of Egypt extreme aridity has preserved large amounts of organic matter. Amongst the faunal remains were several hundred bird bones, together with feathers and egg shell. The majority of the bird bones have been identified as domestic fowl Gallus gallus. Other species are rare: they include a few passage migrants and resident species. Finds of spurred tarsometatarsi and bones with medullary deposits indicate that both male and female domestic fowl are represented. It is likely that they were transported to the site from the Nile valley alive; some may have been kept at the settlement. Cut marks suggest that some at least were eaten, but the birds may have been used for different purposes, both secular and ritual. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Patterns of pastoralism in later Bronze Age Kazakhstan: new evidence from faunal and lipid residue analyses

Current research themes relating to prehistoric Central Asian pastoralism are discussed, and the Neolithic to Bronze archaeological sequence in Kazakhstan is briefly outlined. The results of new faunal analyses of six later Bronze Age sites in Central and Northern Kazakhstan are presented. These studies are based upon the analysis of 63,529 bone fragments, of which 27,023 were identifiable to species and element. These assemblages are compared with 16 other sites in Central and Northern Kazakhstan, and the Trans-Ural region. The herd structures at the final Bronze Age site of Kent are discussed in detail. Analyses of absorbed lipid residues from four sites are also presented. In total, 140 pottery sherds were analysed, of which 73 provided sufficient residues for stable isotope ratio determinations. It is concluded that species proportions are highly variable regionally. Cattle are most prevalent in the forest steppe zone, whilst caprines become more common in semi-arid steppe regions. Proportions of horse are particularly variable, even within environmentally similar areas. Lipid residue results indicate the high prevalence of ruminant dairy products in pottery vessels, whilst faunal data from Kent suggests that cattle husbandry might have been particularly focussed on milk, in comparison with sheep and goats. The significance of horses within prehistoric pastoralism is discussed.     

FOCUS: on the use of the petrous bone for estimating cranial abundance in fossil assemblages

Low representation of braincase bones in zooarchaeological assemblages suggests that skulls have been intensively processed by Levantine Epipalaeolithic foragers; most cranial elements are often unidentifiable and are considered poor candidates for quantifying crania. In contrast, the petrous bone is usually found complete, and was found to be easily identifiable to body size category. Use of the petrous bone in fossil assemblages analyses leads to better estimation of the occurrence of cranial elements, and thus of skeletal part representation. We therefore suggest use of the petrous bone for detecting bone destruction and selective transport in faunal assemblages.     

The great auk (Pinguinus impennis) in the Netherlands during the Roman period

Bones of the great auk (Pinguinus impennis) have been found in four archaeological sites in the Netherlands in recent years. These sites all date to the early Roman period. The great auk is believed never to have been a breeding bird in the Netherlands, which makes the presence of the bones remarkable. The history and ecology of the great aukare outlined. Some possible reasons are discussed for the presence of the great auk in Dutch waters during the early Roman period. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Roman Navigation in Venice Lagoon: the Results of Underwater Research

Venice lagoon formed part of a network of inland waterways used for navigation in the northern Adriatic, an almost continuous system of lakes, river‐mouths and canals, at least partly pre‐Roman in origin. The fossae which cross the present lagoon are the continuation of a complex system of natural watercourses and artificial canals between Ravenna and Aquileia. Two Roman buildings discovered on the present San Felice canal could be interpreted as providing navigational assistance at points linking the sea and inland routes. © 2009 The Authors     

Camels in the northern provinces of the Roman Empire

This paper describes the camel bones discovered in two Late Roman contexts from Arlon (Belgium). The morphological and metrical analyses identify the animal as a dromedary.