Clay models of Phoenician vessels in the Hecht Museum at the University of Haifa, Israel

Two clay models of boats have recently been added to the collection of the Hecht Museum at the University of Haifa. The models are of rowing boats, with three and five pairs of oarsmen respectively. They probably represent harbour service boats or ceremonial sailings near a harbour. Their analysis is based on similar artefacts found underwater along the same coast and related to the same Phoenician culture. The origin of the artefacts is apparently from close to Tyre, and they can be dated to the 5th century BCE. They may have been from a temple favissa .     

Geoarchaeology of Sidon's ancient harbours,Phoenicia

Geoarchaeological data from Sidon's ancient harbour areas elucidate six evolutionary phases since the Bronze Age. (1) At the time of Sidon's foundation, during the third millennium BC, medium sand facies show the city's northern and southern pocket beaches to have served as proto-harbours for Middle to Late Bronze Age societies. (2) Towards the end of the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, expanding international trade prompted coastal populations into modifying these natural anchorages. In Sidon's northern harbour, transition from shelly to fine-grained sands is the earliest granulometric manifestation of human coastal modification. The lee of Zire island was also exploited as a deep-water anchorage, or outer harbour, at this time. (3) Although localised sediments evoke developed port infrastructure during the Phoenician and Persian periods, high-resolution reconstruction of the northern harbour's Iron Age history is problematic given repeated dredging practices during the Roman and Byzantine periods. (4) Fine-grained silts and sands in the northern harbour are coeval with advanced Roman engineering works, significantly deforming the coastal landscape. Bio- and lithostratigraphical data attest a leaky lagoon type environment, indicative of a well-protected port. (5) The technological apogee of Sidon's northern harbour is recorded during the late Roman and Byzantine periods, translated stratigraphically by a plastic clays unit and brackish lagoon fauna. (6) A final semi-abandonment phase, comprising coarse sand facies, concurs silting up and a 100–150 m progradation of the port coastline after the seventh century AD. We advance three hypotheses to explain these stratigraphic data, namely cultural, tectonic and tsunamogenic. Finally, our results are compared and contrasted with research undertaken in Sidon's sister harbour, Tyre.     

Geoarchaeology of Tyre's ancient northern harbour,Phoenicia

Tyre's ancient northern harbour has been a source of scientific intrigue and debate for many centuries. Today an insignificant fishing harbour, looking north and sheltered from the dominant winds by a sandstone reef system, is all that remains of the famous Bronze Age, Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine anchorage havens. In light of this many scholars have long questioned whether the modern port corresponds to its counterpart in antiquity. Here, we provide litho- and biostratigraphical evidence for an ancient harbour approximately twice as large as the present, comprising the modern day harbour and city centre. Four distinct sedimentary units have been identified, translating the different Holocene palaeoenvironments: (1) The Holocene transgressive contact is dated ca. 7800 BP, and lies at the base of a silty-clay lithodependant unit. Our proxies are consistent with a low energy, lagoonal type environment, protected by an extensive reef system. (2) Transition to a coarse sand fraction after ca. 5500 BP is concomitant with the accretion of a semi-protected pocket beach. This environment served as a proto-harbour during the Middle Bronze Age (MBA). (3) After the MBA, artificial harbour sedimentation is represented by a fine-grained silty-sand unit with stress on the natural biosystem. This unit attests to a closed, marine-lagoonal type environment, which existed until around 1500 BP. Dredging activity during the Roman and Byzantine periods explains the absence of 1st millennium BC strata. (4) The economic decline of the ancient city after the Byzantine period is marked by the opening of the basin to greater marine influence, with a progradation of the harbour coastline. Natural sediment infilling diminished the size of the harbour to its present dimensions, lost until now, beneath the Medieval and Modern centres.     

Managing the maritime heritage: the National Maritime Archaeological Museum and National Centre for Underwater Research, Cartagena, Spain

The rapid developmental work of the Museum-Centre and its policies within a limited budget are set in the context of world-wide problems of management and preservation of the underwater heritage in the face of accelerating threats to its survival. The impact of engineering projects and lack of official control or supervision of developer-funded maritime archaeological interventions is something of which governments are insufficiently aware. The construction of a marina at Mazarron has resulted in progressive denudation of the bay, exposure of two Phoenician wrecks and thousands of Phoenician potsherds, necessitating the annual resurvey of 70,000 m² of seabed. Among protective measures an iron 'strongbox' has been designed and successfully used on small wreck-sites. © 2000 The Nautical Archaeology Society     

The Palaeo‐Environmental Contexts of Three Possible Phoenician Anchorages in Portugal

The 2002 Joint Expedition of the Institute of Nautical Archaeology and the Centro Nacional de Arqueologia Náutica e Subaquática examined Phoenician maritime involvement in Portugal, combining archaeological, geological and geophysical surveys of former coastal sites—Santa Olaia, Abul and Castro Marim—where previous excavations have uncovered Phoenician remains. Significant geomorphic evolution of bay‐head delta and estuarine settings masks the fact that Phoenician sites were situated at the head of marine embayments or on estuary margins, had easy access to the sea, and immediate access to at least one natural anchorage. All sites exhibited topographical criteria familiar from Phoenician trading‐stations and merchant outposts in the Mediterranean. © 2009 The Authors     

A Unique Case of Prone Position in the Primary Cremation Tomb 252 of Monte Sirai Necropolis (Carbonia,Sardinia, Italy)

A series of graves belonging to the Phoenician period were investigated after the campaign excavation of 2007 in the Phoenician‐Punic necropolis of Monte Sirai (Carbonia, Sardinia, Italy). One tomb in particular (labelled 252) is presented here because of its uniqueness. Tomb 252 contained the cremated remains of an individual, probably male, and comparison of the excavation records alongside reconstruction of the bone material itself makes clear that the individual was cremated in a prone position. It represents the first case of prone cremation reported in the literature. To investigate whether the temperature of the cremation was homogenous across the entire body, we have conducted a combined physical–chemical analysis using X‐ray diffraction spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Altar from the Castle Chapel of Atlit and its Journey to the Church of all Hallows by the Tower,London

An altar currently positioned in the columbarium of the Church of All Hallows by the Tower, London, was thought to have originated from the Templar castle of Atlit. However, lack of relevant documentation resulted in this being regarded as a myth rather than a genuine piece of history. To add confusion, a Maltese Cross, associated with the Hospitaller Order of St John, was carved on the front of the altar's table top—the mensa.

Recently found documents reveal how this limestone altar was brought from the thirteenth-century Templar castle of Atlit and came into the possession of the church.     

Colonial Representations and Carthaginian Archaeology

In spite of the interest generated by Phoenician‐Punic Archaeology, this area of study has always been underestimated by comparison with Classical Archaeology. One of the main reasons for this is the persistence of a colonial representation of the ancient Mediterranean which assumes Greek culture to be the supreme expression of civilization. Other groups may imitate it through an acculturation process: Hellenization. As we shall see, this representation pervades even the Phoenician‐Punic history and archaeology university textbooks. Starting with the various reasons leading to this situation, I aim to focus on the interpretation given to the ancient excavations at Carthage and, specifically, to its architectural and urban record, since this was the area of study where the prejudices about the Phoenician‐Punic culture found an (albeit misunderstood) archaeological proof. I shall argue that the misinterpretation of these excavations is the key to understanding later developments and the general underestimation of Phoenician‐Punic Archaeology.     

Pre-Alexandrine Phoenician staters from northeastern Arabia

Five Phoenician staters from northeastern Saudi Arabia, four of them previously unpublished, are presented and discussed. The potential significance of Phoenician material in this region is treated briefly.     

Silo or Vat? Observations on the Ancient Textile Industry in Malta and Early Phoenician Interests in the Island

This paper concerns the Bronze Age/Phoenician contact period, focusing on a cache of pottery from Mtarfa, Malta, excavated by Ward Perkins in 1939, and the evidence of coastal and other pits, possibly used in the process of dyeing textile. Dyed fabric, it is argued, may have been the reason for Phoenician contact with the island prior to colonization. Murex shells and other possible dye sources within Malta are discussed.     

Phoenician–Punic amphorae in northern coastal Etruria: New evidence from Pisa (Italy)

This study outlines the circulation of Phoenician–Punic amphorae in northern coastal Etruria, with a particular focus on Pisa (Italy), where their presence has been attested since the mid-eighth century BCE. A set of specimens from Piazza del Duomo was analysed by minero-petrographic and geochemical techniques. The results were compared with literature data from Mediterranean production areas. The research allowed a better definition of the role of Etruscan Pisa in the frame of commercial and cultural routes in the Mediterranean, specifically in the Tyrrhenian area, also providing the opportunity to review the attestations of Phoenician–Punic amphora on a regional scale.     

A 15th‐Century Wreck of an Ordnance‐Carrying Ship from Atlit North Bay,Israel

In 1977, a shipwreck assemblage was discovered off Atlit, Israel. Finds included three iron anchors, a large bombard, four swivel guns, stone and lead shot, and bronze helmets. The bronze bombard (2210 kg, 3.247 m long) contained a wooden wad and remnants of what may have been gunpowder. The swivel guns (each 185 kg) were bronze, with swivels and the tillers of iron. Twenty (or 21) bronze helmets were recovered. The findings provide rare evidence for the mounting of heavy ordnance on the bow of a galley or ship in the 15th century.     

The Problem of the Missing Harbour of Evagoras at Salamis,Cyprus: a review of the evidence and pointers to a solution

This article summarises the archaeological evidence for the existence of Evagoras' naval harbour at Salamis in North Cyprus, which ancient texts credit him with building c.410–400 BC. Based on a critical examination of previous surveys and his own on‐site observations, the author concludes there is indicative evidence of a constructed harbour c.800 m long, which was divided into two basins by a stone jetty, separated from the city by a stone wall and with some evidence of ship‐sheds at its north end. © 2012 The Author     

A Compositional and Microstructural Study of Eighth‐Century BC Bronzes from Moita Da Ladra (Tagus Estuary): How Did the Spread of the Phoenician Metallurgy Take Place in Western Iberia?

Metals from a votive deposit at Moita da Ladra (Tagus Estuary) dating to the eighth century bc were studied by micro‐EDXRF, optical microscopy and Vickers testing to investigate the adoption of Phoenician innovations by indigenous communities. Artefacts are made of bronze alloys with suitable tin contents (11.6 ± 2.3 wt%) and very low iron impurities (<0.05 wt%), and were often manufactured using the long post‐casting sequence. Comparisons with indigenous and Phoenician metallurgies from western Iberia revealed a conservative technology suggesting that the spread of Phoenician innovations was very slow. In this region, the adoption of a diversified copper‐based metallurgy and reduction furnaces only seems to occur during the Post‐Orientalizing Period, c. sixth to fourth centuries bc .     

The Mazarrón 1 Shipwreck: an iron‐age boat with unique features from the Iberian Peninsula

Two iron‐age shipwrecks, associated with Phoenician ceramics, were discovered at the Playa de la Isla in Mazarrón, Spain. This preliminary report describes hitherto unknown boatbuilding features of the Mazarrón 1 hull remains. The vessel presents hybrid boatbuilding techniques using both pegged mortise‐and‐tenon plank‐edge fasteners and sewn seams employing longitudinal continuous stitching, and a unique keel scarf. It is an important source of information for the development of shipbuilding in the western Mediterranean during the Iron Age.     

The plant landscape of the imperial harbour of Rome

The research concerns the Tiber delta area, about 3 km far from the present seacoast, where the remains of the ancient harbour of Rome are located. In 42 AD, Claudius started the construction of the harbour and Nero completed it in 64 AD. Then, the emperor Trajan went on to add a hexagonal basin to the former structure, which had gradually silted up. The imperial harbour was connected to the Tiber River and ultimately to the city of Rome through the Trajan channel. During the imperial period, most of the supplies imported from the Mediterranean provinces reached the city of Rome through Portus.     

Towards a Definition of the pre-Classical Phoenician Temple

ABSTRACT

Though our knowledge of Iron Age Phoenician cultic architecture is quite limited, the available data suggests that pre-Classical Phoenician temples followed a similar plan which displayed several unique architectural features. This plan originated from a long held, Bronze Age, Canaanite tradition which became especially prominent along the northern Levantine coast from the Middle Bronze Age II, appearing alongside other temple plans. This article aims to demonstrate that during the Iron Age and most of the Persian period, this temple plan became the predominant temple type in Phoenicia and its dependencies. It was only during the late Persian period, that a drastic change occurred, and this millennia-old plan was abandoned in favor of other temple types. Nevertheless, it appears that despite this seemingly radical change, the most notable feature of the traditional plan was preserved.     

Early Imports in the Late Bronze Age of South‐Western Iberia: The Bronze Ornaments of the Hypogea at Monte da Ramada 1 (Southern Portugal)

The composition and manufacture of Late Bronze Age metallic artefacts from funerary and domestic contexts of southern inland Portugal was studied. The prevailing trend comprises binary bronzes (10.3 ± 2.1 wt% Sn) showing deformed equiaxial grains, annealing twins and slip bands. The alloy composition is somewhat independent of artefact type, while the manufacture seems to rely on artefact function and the skilfulness of the metallurgist. The technological characteristics were linked with archaeological and chronological features, disclosing some artefacts of uncommon composition, such as low‐tin bronze bracelets (4.3–7.1 wt% Sn) associated with ornaments of exotic materials (glass and Egyptian faience beads, and also ostrich egg shell beads). The assemblage testifies to an archaic trade with the Mediterranean region before the establishment of the first Phoenician colonies on the southern Iberian coast.     

The Harbour at Ptolemais: Hellenistic City of the Libyan Pentapolis

This article describes fieldwork undertaken in 1972 at the harbour of the Hellenistic city of Ptolemais at Tolmeita in Cyrenaica, Libya. This survey has shown that the city possessed a sophisticated Hellenistic harbour installation, now submerged by some 2 m. It consisted of a small fishing harbour and a larger commercial harbour protected by extensive stone breakwaters built around two offshore islands. Between the harbours, remains were found under water of an extensive block‐built quay connected to one island, where there was a system of submerged rock‐cut tanks. These are interpreted as the foundations of a fish‐processing factory. Changes in sea‐level are also discussed.