Potassium–Calcium Glass: New Data and Experiments*

The chemical composition of potassium–calcium ‘wood‐ash’ glass reflects the elemental pattern of the involved non‐volatile base materials in quartz sand, wood ash and possibly potash. The essential elemental ratio K₂O/CaO of wood ash varies between 0.2 and 0.8, and depends on the habitat and geological substratum of the wood rather than on the tree species; ratios between 1.0 and 3.0 in wood‐ash glass are only possible when potash is added as a third base material. Melting temperatures of wood‐ash glass sensu stricto, termed K–Ca‐2, produced with the two raw materials quartz sand and wood ash, are between 1250°C and 1400°C, while those of three‐component‐glasses, termed K–Ca‐3, are between 900°C and 1250°C, according to the amount of added potash. Experimentally produced glass displays different hues, from colourless to brown, olive‐green and pink, according to the chemical composition of the wood ash. Elevated MnO concentrations between 0.5 and 3 wt% may originate from wood ash and are hence not necessarily an indicator of colour‐inhibiting additives. Phosphate stemming from wood ash is an essential discriminator between wood‐ash glass and potash–lime glass. Because wood ash contains only minor amounts of sodium, wood‐ash glass with equal concentrations of potassium and sodium is a hybrid glass type, where besides quartz sand, wood ash, possibly potash and also soda‐rich cullet have been applied for glass production.     

Analysis of Construction Timber in Rural Austria: Wooden Log Walls

House-building with wood has a long tradition in Austria. In this study, 47 houses from the Austrian Alps and the alpine foothills were analyzed. Dendrochronology was used to date the houses and to extract further information as construction phases within one building and time needed for harvesting. The construction dates range between 1452 and 1934. The focus was set on log constructions and in particular on wooden log walls. All wooden walls were made of softwood, clearly dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies). A remarkable decline in the utilization of spruce wood as construction timber was found during the 19th century, which might be due to the high charcoal production at that time. By analyzing age, wood species, time of harvesting and way of processing, knowledge about wood utilization and historical forest management can be regained. Furthermore, some social and economical background of the farmers can be lifted. Technical dates as wall thickness and total wood volume required to build a residential building is provided.     

Analysis of Medieval and Post‐Medieval Glass Fragments from the Dubrovnik Region (Croatia)

Dubrovnik was an important trade city throughout the medieval and post‐medieval time period, maintaining its own glass production from the 14th to the 16th century. Unfortunately, Dubrovnik glass discoveries have not been well investigated up until now, except via archival data in large data analyses. In the following work, we will shed new light on the glass material found in this region, which has diverse origins, chronology, typology and style. Medieval and post‐medieval glass finds (10th/12th–18th centuries) discovered during archaeological excavations in Dubrovnik and the Dubrovnik region were analysed using particle‐induced X‐ray emission (PIXE) and particle‐induced gamma‐ray emission (PIGE), which revealed three main compositional groups: natron glass, plant‐ash glass and potash glass. This demonstrates the important commercial links present between Dubrovnik and other major glass‐making centres.     

Europe’s mediation junction: technology and consumer society in the 20th century

This article reviews the literature on the relationship between consumption and technological development to understand the character of Europe’s 20th‐century trajectory, i.e. the hidden integration of Europe long before the formal process of unification started. Within the rich historiography, the paper focuses on the intersection between production and consumption, where a range of social actors and institutions sought to represent consumers and mediate consumption. It is at this juncture of mediation that social actors and institutions negotiated the mediated design and the appropriation of new products and technologies. The paper further historicizes the juncture of mediation by introducing the European politics of the state, marketplace, and civil society within the context of economic crises, world wars, revolutionary changes, post‐war reconstruction, and cold war. By looking at the mediation junction, a conceptual frame is offered to understand the connection, the disconnection, or the reconfiguration of technologies and consumer identities in 20th‐century Europe. In a final section, the article suggests new avenues for research to examine the hidden integration of Europe.     

Analyses of Early Medieval Stained Window Glass From the Monastery of Baume‐Les‐Messieurs (Jura,France)

The collection of early medieval window glass found in the abbey of Baume‐les‐Messieurs (Jura, France) is exceptional because it dates to the end of the eighth century, and due to the number of fragments as well as their state of conservation. Different colours and forms have been identified. These pieces are a rare opportunity to address the glass craft, its recipes and techniques for a phase of its history that has remained little known. Analyses in PIXE–PIGE prove that, in addition to fragments from two soda glass items, the pieces are made from wood‐ash glass. Most of them probably came from the same production and the raw material is present in the region. At this early stage of wood‐ash glass production, the glassmakers had mastered the glass as well as the colour processes.     

Wet charred wood: a preliminary study of the material and its conservation treatments

This study investigated wet charred wood excavated at an archaic cemetery in Corfu, Greece, dating from 6th century B.C. The preservation condition of the material was evaluated based on its physicochemical properties and micromorphology in comparison to modern combusted wood. Charring temperature of the material was estimated by Electron Spin Resonance (ESR). Results indicated a severe degree of decay, resulting not only from charring. Conservation treatments involved spraying, as the material readily collapsed during immersion.     

Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa,Syria*

The chemical analysis of excavated glass fragments from dated archaeological contexts in Raqqa, Syria, has provided a detailed picture of the chemical compositions of artefacts deriving from eighth to ninth and 11th century glassmaking and glassworking activities. Evidence for primary glass production has been found at three excavated sites, of eighth to ninth, 11th and 12th century dates; the first two are discussed here. The 2 km long industrial complex at al‐Raqqa was associated with an urban landscape consisting of two Islamic cities (al‐Raqqa and al‐Rafika) and a series of palace complexes. The glass fused and worked there was presumably for local as well as for regional consumption. Al‐Raqqa currently appears to have produced the earliest well‐dated production on record in the Middle East of an Islamic high‐magnesia glass based on an alkaline plant ash flux and quartz. An eighth to ninth century late ‘Roman’/Byzantine soda–lime recipe of natron and sand begins to be replaced in the eighth to ninth century by a plant ash – quartz Islamic soda–lime composition. By the 11th century, this process was nearly complete. The early Islamic natron glass compositional group from al‐Raqqa shows very little spread in values, indicating a repeatedly well‐controlled process with the use of chemically homogeneous raw materials. A compositionally more diffuse range of eighth to ninth century plant ash glass compositions have been identified. One is not only distinct from established groups of plant ash and natron glasses, but is believed to be the result of experimentation with new raw material combinations. Compositional analysis of primary production waste including furnace glass (raw glass adhering to furnace brick) shows that contemporary glasses of three distinct plant ash types based on various combinations of plant ash, quartz and sand were being made in al‐Raqqa during the late eighth to ninth centuries. This is a uniquely wide compositional range from an ancient glass production site, offering new insights into the complexity of Islamic glass technology at a time of change and innovation.     

Portuguese Blue‐on‐Blue 16th–17th Century Pottery

Blue‐on‐blue (‘berettino’) sherds have appeared in numerous production and consumption archaeological excavations in Lisbon and other archaeological sites in Portugal (dated from the mid‐16th century to the beginning of the 17th century). The abundance of this interesting faience led us to compare it with similar pottery from other well‐known production centres in Italy, namely Liguria (Savona and Albisola), Spain (the Triana kilns) and the Low Countries. Differences in the diffraction patterns of the sherds' pastes from the four countries were observed. In most samples, cobalt blue silicate (cobalt olivine) was identified in the dark blue or light blue glazes through the use of micro‐Raman spectroscopy and diffuse reflectance spectra. A remarkable difference in the calcite contents of the Lisbon and Seville pottery sherds was observed, in accordance with previous observations of high calcite contents of Seville ceramics. A comparison was also made for all of the blue‐on‐blue sherds studied here with many other 16th–17th century sherds from Lisbon using bivariate plots of K/Si versus Ca/Si. Lisbon and Seville pottery behave very differently, whereas sherds from Italy and the Low Countries occupy intermediate positions.     

Kauramin法加固饱水古木件的机理

利用FT IR、DSC以及形态组织观察等方法,初步探讨了Kauramin(MF树脂)法渗透加固16世纪饱水古船残块(古像木)的过程与机理。结果表明,MF树脂可填充在橡木细胞组织的各层中,与其中的纤维素、木质素等形成大量氢键,高度交联,最终形成网络状整体,从而使古木件的机械性能得以改善。     

Tahiti: the ripples of a myth on the shores of the imagination

Influenced by Henri Lefebvre's ideas about the production of space as a continually evolving dialogic process, I trace the long post‐contact history of “Tahiti” as an entangled place where the production and product are continually intertwined. I examine more than two hundred years of historical twists and turns that result in a dialogic process of place making. Tahiti is generated when the imaginary place collides with the material existence, each reflecting and recasting the other. This intertwined history includes 18th‐century French imperialist philosophies and voyages of exploration; 19th‐century colonial intervention, romantic novels and Gauguin's colourful canvases; and 20th‐century French chocolates, Hollywood movies, French nuclear testing, postcards and more.     

Prehistoric wooden bows and arrows in the Turpan Basin,Northwest China: Wood selection and utilization in a mosaic landscape

In the present study, we analyzed seven wooden bows and 13 arrows excavated from the cemeteries of Subeixi Culture (13th century BCE–AD second century) in the Turpan Basin, northwest China. A total of six taxa, viz. Morus sp., Salix sp., Picea sp., Lonicera sp., Betula sp., and Tamarix sp. were identified. Some of these taxa have been generally accepted to be suitable for bow-and-arrow production. All these taxa were local in origin but distributed in different ecotonal zones, including oases, saline-alkali lands, and mountain areas. Previous archaeological studies have confirmed that the Subeixi populations lived an agro-pastoral life. By analyzing the possible provenance of these wood samples, it can be hypothesized that these ancient agro-pastoralists moved between the Turpan Basin and the Tianshan Mountains on a seasonal basis.     

Revisiting Key Sedimentary Archives Yields Evidence Of A Rapid Onset Of Mining In The Mid‐13th Century At The Great Copper Mountain,Falun, Sweden

Mining in Falun, Sweden, was first mentioned in a deed from ad 1288, but previous studies of peat and lake sediments inferred that mining began during the fifth to eighth centuries. In order to reassess these findings, we performed new geochemical analyses on new samples from three key sites: Tisksjöbergets myr, a buried mire alongside the mine; Tisken, a small lake in Falun; and Runn, the main recipient for waters draining through Falun. At Tisksjöbergets myr, the peat contains up to 6% copper, giving it the characteristics of a cupriferous bog. Hence, this record is not useful for tracing early mining. The sediments of Tisken—upon which many of the old interpretations have relied—contain numerous cut wood fragments, and two of those gave young and reversed radiocarbon dates (19th and 16th centuries for 192 and 187 cm, respectively). This indicates that the sediment was derived from infilling and, thus, has little value as a historical record. Runn's sediment—the only reliable record—provides clear evidence of a rapid onset of large‐scale mining from c. ad 1245, with abrupt increases in ore‐related elements—for example, a 34‐fold increase in copper—this increase is consistent with the mid‐13th century burial of the mire at Tisksjöberget.     

Changing Notions of Authenticity: Presenting a Castle Over Four Centuries

Bolsover Castle is a 17th‐century mock‐medieval castle built for the Cavendish family. First impressions suggest that its Pillar Parlour has survived with little alteration for nearly four centuries. In reality, there have been minor but telling changes to its fabric. The 18‐century Cavendishes venerated the castle as a shrine to their ancestors. Bolsover’s 19th‐century tenants recreated a romantic Olden Time appearance. The public bodies responsible for the castle in the 20th century used archaeology to reconstruct its 17th‐century form. In each case, these custodians aimed to present the site ‘authentically’, but their work reveals their own contemporary readings of the castle’s history. This evidence, gathered for a Conservation Plan, allowed English Heritage’s re‐display of the castle (1996–2001) to take a more reflective and positive approach to creating new meanings. This use of history to create local important meanings should give good cheer to those managing similar small but significant sites across the world.     

Lead‐Glazed Rustiques Figulines (Rustic Ceramics) of Bernard Palissy (1510–90) and his Followers

The glaze chemistry of a group of rustiques figulines attributed to the renowned French potter Bernard Palissy (1510–90), or to his followers and imitators, has been determined non‐destructively using PIXE and PIGE analyses. The glazes are all lead silicates, the colourants being transition metal oxides—CuO, CoO, MnO and Fe₂O₃—with a small addition of SnO₂ to some of the glazes being common. Some distinction can be made between the various fabricated objects based on details of the overall composition and on the concentrations of the various colourants. The presence of B₂O₃ in any glaze, even in quantities as small as 0.1–0.3%, indicates a post‐16th century production. Additionally, B₂O₃ in larger quantities, a few per cent or greater, very probably indicates an 18th–19th century production. However, at least one object known to be of 19th century production contains no B₂O₃.     

Wine Bottles From Lisbon: Archaeometric Studies Of Two Archaeological Sites Dated From The 17th To The 19th Century

Two sets of wine bottles dated between the end of the 17th and the 19th centuries were characterized by means of μ‐PIXE (major and minor elements) and LA–ICP–MS (trace and REE elements). The fragmented wine bottles were recovered from two archaeological contexts in Lisbon and reach a total of 79 fragments. One of the archaeological bottle sets comes from a house structure that collapsed during the major earthquake in 1755, providing a precise terminus ante quem. The second set comes from the exploratory archaeological intervention performed in Rua do Arsenal, where the Côrte‐Real Palace (built in the 16th century), was discovered. From this site, posterior contexts dated up to the 19th century were considered. This systematic study allowed the glass to be identified as high‐lime, low‐alkali (HLLA) for all the considered chronologies. However, the 19th‐century bottles have a different HLLA composition, suggesting the use of synthetic soda. Comparison with data from literature showed some similarity with English, Belgium and French reported compositions. This is the first systematic attempt to characterize the composition of glass wine bottles circulating in Portugal, giving new insights into their probable provenances, and on the exchange between Portugal and its trading allies.     

Carrier routes in the Northeast of Scotland 1803–1914: Development and change in a service

During the first four decades of the 19th century carrier services in the northeast of Scotland developed rapidly. Most were centred on Aberdeen, the main city and port of the region, but local networks also existed, focused on other towns in the region. Improved road facilities throughout the region, particularly those formed by turnpike trusts, enabled an increasing number of locations to be served in this way. The rapid economic development that took place in the area at this time led to, and was fostered by, an increasing frequency of service.. The arrival of the railway in the region in the middle of the 19th century, and its gradual extension north and west of Aberdeen, had a major effect on the road‐based carrier network. Long‐distance routes centred on Aberdeen declined rapidly, there was rationalisation within the services provided, new services grew up centred on railway facilities, and the number of short‐distance carriers increased. The flexibility inherent in carrier services, however, ensured that they continued to remain relevant to customers in the 20th century.     

Glass Beads from 15th–17th Century CE Jar Burial Sites in Cambodia's Cardamom Mountains

A total of 74 glass beads, included as grave goods in 15th–17th century CE jar burials from Cambodia's Cardamom Mountains, were analysed using laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS). Several glass types were identified, including two subtypes of high‐alumina mineral soda glass, and lead–potash glass. The final glass type represents a newly discovered and previously unidentified type of high‐alumina soda glass, with high magnesia (m‐Na–Al Mg>). This study represents the first glass data from the mid‐second millennium CE from Cambodia and sheds light on the multiple long‐distance maritime exchange networks in which the upland people buried in the jars were participating.     

Potash - a key raw material of glass batch for Bohemian glasses from 14th-17th centuries?

The aim of this work is to verify or refute hypothesis of existence of basic/universal glass batch: quartz sand: potash: limestone, at a ratio of 2: 1: 1 used in Bohemian glass production since the middle ages onwards and to simulate the preparation of a potassium glass type with the composition used in medieval Bohemia. The chemical composition of Bohemian glass, which incorporated in the proposed glass batch for glassmaking on a laboratory scale, was evaluated by (a) findings directly related to glassmaking (samples from glasswork in Moldava dating back to the 15th century) and (b) information from publications.Experimentally produced glasses for the present paper were prepared from raw materials such as ash, leached ash, potash, limestone and quartz sand. The plant raw materials (spruce, beech and bracken ashes, raw and refined potash) were treated and prepared by methods similar to the production procedures used in the pre-industrial era.The main contrast was found in the CaO/K₂O weight ratio, which was determined in glasses that were characteristic of given periods. While this ratio was often below 1 in glasses of the 15th century, it reached values above 1 in glasses at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. This result may indicate that the composition of the glass batch had changed.The results of the present study reject the current scholarly work dealing with glass batch composition during the 14th-17th centuries and confirm that glass produced in some Bohemian medieval glassworks could have been melted from a batch that included plant ash, making the use of limestone unnecessary. The traditional suggestion of the exact ratios of raw materials, often cited in historical literature, seems to be impossible. The glassmakers had to react to the variable composition of the raw materials, especially plant ash.     

Exploring Diversity in Household Pottery Traditions in Crusader Greece: a Case Study from the City of Thebes,Boeotia

This paper provides new data on an under‐documented topic in Aegean archaeology, that of the impact of Latin–Greek cohabitation on craftsmanship, socio‐economic organization and household pottery traditions. The chosen approach is a petrographic study of the provenance and technology of 37 cooking pots, jugs, basins and storage jars from the city of Thebes, Boeotia. The ceramics span from the late 12th to the mid‐14th century and thereby cover the periods of Byzantine, Frankish and Catalan control over the city. The analysis indicates that most pottery products were not locally made during these periods. Pottery consumption at Thebes involved, in the 12th/13th century, regional products from northern Boeotia, while pottery supplies from Euboea that had developed under Byzantine rule continued into the 14th century, well after Boeotia and Euboea came into the hands of, respectively, Frankish and Venetian lords in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade (1204). The petrographic analysis also allows for the characterization of Byzantine and Latin tempering practices of the pottery fabrics. These results highlight phenomena of regional economic reliance in central Greece and provide rare evidence for the cross‐cultural diffusion of technological knowledge in the late medieval Mediterranean.     

THE DYNAMICS OF SUBCENTER FORMATION: MIDTOWN MANHATTAN, 1861–1906

Midtown Manhattan is the largest business district in the country. Yet only a few miles to the south is another district centered at Wall Street. This paper aims to investigate when and why midtown emerged as a separate business district. We have created a new data set from historical New York City directories that provide the employment location, residence, and job type for several thousand residents in the late‐19th and early‐20th centuries. We supplement this data with additional records from historical business directories. The evidence suggests that early midtown firms appeared there in order to be closer to local residential customers who had been moving north on the island throughout the 19th century. Once several industries appeared in midtown, it triggered a spatial equilibrium readjustment in the 1880s, which then promoted the rise of skyscrapers in midtown around the turn of the 20th century. This process occurred several years before the opening of Grand Central Station in 1913.