Identification of fragmentary bone from the Pacific

We explore bone microstructure for taxonomic identification of archaeological bones too fragmentary to permit secure identification on morphological grounds. Backscattered electron (BSE) imaging is used to observe bone tissue types and the arrangement of vascular canals, and to facilitate quantification of osteonal canal dimensions. Examination of known examples of relevant taxa (humans [n = 8], pigs [n = 4] and dogs [n = 4]) shows significant differences among them. When the results of this examination are applied to a blind test of modern and archaeological specimens (humans [n = 8], pigs [n = 2]), 100% of specimens are identified correctly. The approach is applied to 13 morphologically unidentifiable fragments from Hawai’i and Fiji to evaluate its potential for identifying bone tools and to increase the number of samples available for dietary analysis. Potential applications of the approach for other contexts are discussed.     

Intrataxonomic variability in metapodial and femur bone density related to age in guanaco (Lama guanicoe). Zooarchaeological and taphonomical implications

The aim of this paper is to present new information about bone mineral density (BMD) variability in guanaco (Lama guanicoe), a South American wild camelid; while taking into account its ontogenic development. The importance of considering intrataxonomic variability in bone density related to age for constructing zooarchaeological indices and applying them to archaeological assemblages is also discussed. The results presented here were developed from a large sample of 46 metacarpals and 45 femurs of modern guanacos, ranging in age from ca. 6 months of gestation to 12 years. Bone structural densities were measured using a biphotonic X-ray densitometer, DEXA method, Norland EXCELL and the bone mineral content (BMC) of each scanned portion or complete element was divided by its volume, which was obtained independently by water displacement. Our results indicate that the bone density of each anatomical unit is highly variable, even among individuals of the same species. According to metacarpals data, age is an important factor affecting BMD. Moreover, our study shows that the density ranges of different skeletal elements can overlap, suggesting that it is not possible to predict that a certain element is always denser than another one. Finally, we present new evidence about the potential age-related taphonomic bias in faunal assemblages, indicating that meanwhile some skeletal elements show clear differences in their density between their fused and unfused state (metacarpal) other do not (femur).     

Bison Bone Fragmentation and Survivorship: a Comparative Method

Zooarchaeologists usually describe a bone fragment as a particular portion or segment using terminology based on skeletal orientation (e.g. proximal, anterior, lateral). A more precise understanding of bone fragmentation can be achieved by naming portions for discrete anatomical features and defined zones. Since the anatomical features are the diagnostic criteria for identifying and orienting bones, each specimen normally has at least one such portion, and a complete element contains all of them. This recording method facilitates study of the relationship between survivorship and volume density, and it enhances inter-site comparisons. The method employs the minimum number of elements (MNE) and minimum animal units (MAU) across a site-wide aggregate. Although illustrated here with an analysis of bison bones, the method can be adapted for the study of other taxa as well as for inter-species comparisons.     

Technical aspects of a worked proboscidean tusk from Inmachuk River,Seward Peninsula,Alaska

Prehistoric reduction sequences of proboscidean ivory have been described and discussed within the Russian and European Upper Paleolithic archaeological literature. A culturally modified proboscidean tusk (Mammuthus sp.) in Seward Peninsula, northwestern Alaska, displays longitudinal grooving, providing an insight into a reduction technique rarely described within North American archaeological literature. Similar reduction sequences have been described for the production of bone, antler and walrus ivory artifacts in the North American prehistoric record; however, examples on proboscidean ivory are extremely rare.     

Use-wear analysis of an Amudian laminar assemblage from the Acheuleo-Yabrudian of Qesem Cave,Israel

In this paper the results of use-wear analysis of an Amudian lithic assemblage recently discovered at Qesem Cave, Israel, are presented. Although very old, this assemblage maintains well-preserved traces of use that indicate that butchering activities and plants collecting were carried out at the site. Cut marks on faunal remains confirm the observations obtained by use-wear analysis.     

Changes in invertebrate taxa at two pre-Columbian sites in southwestern Jamaica, AD 800–1500

Excavations at two pre-Columbian sites at Paradise Park, Parish of Westmoreland, Jamaica, revealed significant changes in mollusk use through time. The sites are located on a low dune ridge in a tropical forest between a mangrove swamp and sawgrass morass on Bluefields Bay. One site (Wes-15a) dates to the 9th century AD and contains only Ostionan (redware) pottery. It is located 240 m to the east of a Meillacan (White Marl/Montego Bay style) site dated to the 15th century AD (Wes-15b). The molluscan fauna in the Ostionan site is dominated by species that prefer freely circulating, high salinity seagrass habitats (i.e., Strombidae, Cardiidae, and Veneridae). In marked contrast, Lucinidae and Melongenidae dominate the Meillacan deposits, taxa that favor habitats of low circulation, lower salinity, and muddier substrates that are often associated with mangroves in Jamaica. Cultural and environmental factors that may have contributed to the observed shift in resource use are discussed.     

The effects of sample size on some derived measures in vertebrate faunal analysis

Analysis of three kinds of measures derived from archaeological and palaeontological faunal collections (measures of relative taxonomic abundance, measures of taxonomic diversity, and a measure proposed to distinguish natural from cultural bone) demonstrates that in many instances such measures may be, or are, a function of sample size. A procedure for detecting this situation is suggested, and the source of the interrelationships discussed.     

The effect of a top predator on kangaroo abundance in arid Australia and its implications for archaeological faunal assemblages

The dingo has received considerable attention in the Australian archaeological literature as an agent of bone fragmentation and accumulation. Dingoes have also been studied with respect to their commensal relationship with Aboriginal people. Study has not been directed, however, to the meta-role of dingoes as prey regulators that suppress kangaroo abundance, and the subsequent impact on human subsistence that direct competition between dingoes and humans over the same animal resources could have produced. This study presents data gathered in two adjacent cultural landscapes defined by human land use, one with dingoes and one without dingoes – to illustrate the archaeological effect that dingoes may have had on human economic systems by suppressing kangaroo abundance. Live kangaroos and kangaroo skeletal remains were on average 14-fold and 32-fold more abundant in the absence of dingoes, and contemporary commercial kangaroo harvesting and sheep grazing were restricted to areas where dingoes were absent. Given the marked effects that dingoes have on contemporary kangaroo abundance and the human economy, we argue that dingoes likely shaped the human economy in the past through human–dingo competition for the same limited resources. Evidence for competition between humans and dingoes could be investigated in the archaeological record by comparing the relative frequency of prey of different body sizes, as well as the degree of fragmentation of kangaroo skeletal elements, before and after the arrival of dingoes.     

A new element of trampling: an experimental application on the Level XII faunal record of Bolomor Cave (Valencia,Spain)

In Level XII of Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain) modifications have been observed on some of the bone fragments that make up the faunal record. These alterations consist of small notches located on the oblique fracture angles of some bones. The frequency at which these modifications appear in the assemblage has obliged to plan several experimental series to know the process that causes them. To be more exact, this study aims to verify whether these small chips are the result of trampling. For this purpose, two experimental series have been developed. The first of which has the objective of differentiating between the variables related to the original state of the bone (green, semi-dry and dry) and the second is aimed at reproducing the modifications observed in the archaeological set, taking into account the data obtained in the previous series. Following these experiments, the appearance of small notches is observed on the oblique fracture angles of some bones in semi-dry state. These resulting chips are similar to those documented in Bolomor Cave, Level XII. Therefore, it is deduced that trampling is the principle cause of these modifications in the bone record. This fact has important archaeological implications, as the spatial distribution of this modification can provide information about the intrasite movements of the human groups.     

The use of dental crown heights for constructing age profiles of red deer and similar species in archaeological samples

The analysis of dental crown heights in a sample of known-age American Red deer (known in America as “elk”) has permitted the derivation of formulae for the prediction of age from crown height. The ages predicted from crown heights closely approximate true ages, when both predicted and true ages are grouped into broad, but still useful age classes. At least for the Red deer or “elk” dP₄, M₂ and M₃, age prediction formulae very similar to the empirically derived ones may be constructed by making certain hypothetical assumptions about the nature and rate of crown attrition. This suggests that these assumptions may be used to construct age prediction formulae in situations where an empirical relationship between age and crown height has not been or cannot be established. With certain provisos noted in the text, the age prediction formulae that result will probably provide reasonably reliable age profiles for the numerous ungulate species whose teeth are similar in structure to those of Red deer or “elk” and at least as hypsodont.     

Ethnoarchaeological analysis of Arctic fish processing: chemical characterization of soils on Nelson Island,Alaska

Activity area analysis of archaeological soils using multi-element characterizations can illuminate how subsistence operations are organized and how subsistence behavior has changed over time, and is increasingly common at archaeological sites. However, in many regions it is impossible to examine the elemental signatures in known anthropogenic soil samples in order to compare them with unknown archaeological samples. This ethnoarchaeological study examines the chemical composition of the soils at known fish processing areas in the contemporary community of Tununak on Nelson Island, western Alaska. Using a quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (Q-ICP-MS), the concentrations of the following elements in the soil extract were recorded in parts per million (ppm): aluminum (Al), barium (Ba), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), sodium (Na), phosphorus (P), strontium (Sr), titanium (Ti), and zinc (Zn). Fish processing area features are elevated in various elements, including sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and manganese, and Ba/Sr, Ba/Ca, and Sr/Ca are also useful in distinguishing between fish processing areas and offsite areas.     

An assessment of the technology level and knowledge intensity of regions in Turkey

The paper investigates the patterns of technology and knowledge of the regions. The first aim of the paper is to determine cluster templates at the national level. The second aim of the paper is to investigate the technology and knowledge composition of the regional highpoint clusters. The paper identifies patterns of industrial linkages to define cluster templates and regional highpoints. The second part uncovers regional distributions of technology and knowledge. The data comes from Turkey’s 2012 input–output table. The location quotients use industrial employment statistics from the Turkish Statistical Institute. The technological and knowledge intensity classification follows Eurostat. The findings reveal 10 cluster templates in Turkey. Spatial distribution of the highpoint clusters reveals that most regions contain highpoint clusters with low technology and low knowledge-intensive sectors. The results reveal that highpoint clusters in Turkey’s regions contain industries whose technologies do not demand high skills, knowledge and sophistication. Limited existence of high-tech industries and low knowledge intensity in Turkey’s industry composition is a limiting factor for transition to high value-added manufacturing. Special emphasis should be directed towards constructing regional advantage, given the current levels of technology and knowledge intensity.     

New Statistical Approaches to Intra‐individual Isotopic Analysis and Modelling of Birth Seasonality in Studies of Herd Animals

This paper introduces improved methods for statistically assessing birth seasonality and intra‐annual variation in δ¹⁸O from faunal tooth enamel. The first method estimates input parameters for use with a previously developed parametric approach by C. Tornero et al. The second method uses a non‐parametric clustering procedure to group individuals with similar time‐series data and estimate birth seasonality. This method was successful in analysing data from a modern sample with known season of birth, as well as two heterogeneous archaeological data sets. Modelling indicates that the non‐parametric approach estimates birth seasonality more successfully than the parametric method when less of the tooth row is preserved. The new approach offers a high level of statistical rigour and flexibility in dealing with the time‐series data produced through intra‐individual sampling in isotopic analysis.     

Cross-platform program for likelihood-based statistical comparisons of mortality profiles on a triangular graph

The construction of mortality profiles to investigate age-at-death patterns is a typical component of most faunal analyses. While many methods exist for constructing and comparing mortality profiles, plotting the percentages of juvenile, prime, and old individuals on a triangular graph, or ternary diagram, remains a popular method for making comparisons. Typically, these comparisons are made visually, but because sample sizes are often small, any differences may be the product of sampling rather than meaningful contrasts in depositional history. To overcome this problem, here we present a likelihood-based method for making statistical comparisons of mortality profiles on a triangular graph, and we make available a cross-platform computer program that implements the method. Although we developed the method with mortality profiles in mind, in principle, it can be used to analyze any kind of artifact for which there are three distinct categories.     

A bone grease processing station at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village: Archaeological evidence for the exploitation of bone fats

Recent excavations at the Mitchell Prehistoric Indian Village, an Initial Middle Missouri site in Mitchell, South Dakota have revealed a large, clay-lined feature filled with fractured and fragmented bison bones. Fracture and fragmentation analysis, along with taphonomic evidence, suggests that the bones preserved within the feature represent evidence of prehistoric bone marrow and bone grease exploitation. Further, the character of the feature suggests that it served as a bone grease processing station. Bone fat exploitation is an activity that is frequently cited as a causal explanation for the nature of many fractured and fragmented bone assemblages in prehistory, and zooarchaeological assemblages have frequently been studied as evidence of bone fat exploitation. The Mitchell example provides some of the first direct, in-situ archaeological evidence of a bone grease processing feature, and this interpretation is sustained by substantial analytical evidence suggesting bone fat exploitation. This new evidence provides a clearer concept of the nature of bone fat exploitation in prehistory as well as an indication of the scale and degree to which bone grease exploitation occurred at the Mitchell site. Finally, this research demonstrates the importance of careful zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis for the interpretation of both artifactual remains as well as archaeological features.     

The technology and production of glazed ceramics from Middle Islamic Jerash,Jordan

Jerash in northern Jordan was, despite a focus on its classical heritage, also active in the Middle Islamic period, but little is known about actual developments during this period. This study represents the first study on the Middle Islamic glazed pottery from the site using scanning electron microscopy energy‐dispersive spectrometry (SEM‐EDS) and thin‐section petrography. The results show that two production traditions existed, each with different provenances. The local production is characterized by a non‐calcareous ceramic body and the use of a high‐lead glaze coloured with iron and copper oxides, whereas the turquoise‐glazed samples, likely imported from Mesopotamia, have a calcareous ceramic body and alkali or alkali‐lead glaze.     

Experimental series and use-wear in bone tools

This paper presents an experimental program and microscopic patterns identified in the analysis of five worked bone morpho-functional groups: harpoon heads, drilled points, bipoints, awls and smoothers.     

Leftovers: The presence of manufacture-derived aquatic lipids in Alaskan pottery

Lipids preserved within the walls of ancient pottery vessels are routinely analysed to reveal their original contents. The provenience of aquatic lipids in pottery is generally connected to vessel function (e.g., for cooking or storing fish, shellfish and aquatic mammals). However, ethnographic reports from early historic Alaska mention the use of aquatic oils for waterproofing low-fired pottery. Results of lipid residue studies on Alaskan pottery reflect an exclusive function of pottery to process aquatic resources. However, can one be sure these residues are the product of vessel function and not a remnant of the manufacturing process? The study presents the results of an experiment where the preservation of aquatic lipids during the firing process at different temperatures was measured. It was found that nearly all lipids were removed at firing temperatures of ≥ 400°C. Petrographic analysis of Alaskan pottery samples indicates that firing temperatures were generally > 550°C but < 800°C. The contribution of pre-firing manufacture-derived lipids to samples fired at these temperatures may be regarded as negligible. While the possible presence of aquatic lipids from post-firing surface treatments cannot be excluded, such treatments appear unnecessary for well-fired pottery.     

The Lantern-Bearers of the history of technology

Historians of technology need to focus more on studying human experiences of technological change rather than technological objects. Aesthetic debates over ‘realism’ and ‘romance’ in the later nineteenth century suggest that greater attention to the inward world of lived experience can enhance our understanding of historical experience. The well-known writer Robert Louis Stevenson experimented with a variety of new forms of romance to write about contemporary events in the South Seas with primary attention to inward experiences of technological change, as opposed to accounts of technological objects.     

Social agency and the dynamics of prehistoric technology

Technology is not only the material means of making artifacts, but a dynamic cultural phenomenon embedded in social action, worldviews, and social reproduction. This paper explores the theoretical foundations for an anthropology of technology that is compatible with this definition. Because of its focus on social agency, practice theory provides an appropriate starting point for a social theory of technology. In addition, three other themes require explicit attention: scale, context, and the materiality of technology. Four case studies demonstrate how archaeologists are beginning to take technology beyond its material dimensions, and additional questions are proposed stemming from the theoretical issues raised in the paper. The purpose of this essay is to synthesize a diverse set of emerging ideas and approaches to understand better dynamic community-level social processes of prehistoric material culture production.