Technology,chronology and the role of crucible steel as inferred from iron objects of the ancient site at Junnar,India

Ordinary iron objects from an ancient habitation site at Junnar in India, dating to the 2nd BC to AD 2nd century, were examined for their microstructure, chemical composition and age. The objects were mostly made of high carbon steel with a homogeneous microstructure consisting of fine spherical particles of carbide in the ferrite background, free of non-metallic inclusions. Their carbon concentration ranged from 0.7% to over 1.6% with one exception at 0.2%. Some of them contained trace amounts of silicon, manganese and sulfur while one object retained cavities due to volume contraction during solidification reactions. These features indicate that the objects examined constitute an early example of Indian steel making in crucibles. Evidence was found that basic techniques needed for the success of crucible steel technology were mostly available at Junnar at the time. The radiocarbon measurement on carbon samples extracted from one of the iron objects placed its date between 176 BC and AD 20, in agreement with the radiocarbon dates of three charcoal samples from the same site. The forgoing results support that crucible steel was produced in India at a much earlier date than previously supposed, to serve as a material for specific needs arising in daily life.     

Roman double-layered crucibles from Autun/France: a petrological and geochemical approach

Eighteen double-layered crucible fragments found in an archaeological excavation site of the Lycée militaire (Autun/France), which dates to the Gallo-Roman period, were analysed with a series of classical mineralogical techniques in order to obtain knowledge about the raw materials of the individual layers. This work focuses on the usage of the crucibles as well as technical aspects of their production. The crucible fragments were studied by using petrographical (optical microscopy), elemental (SEM-EDS, EMPA, XRF-WDS) and mineralogical (XRD) techniques.     

Dating the baptism of Clovis: the bishop of Vienne vs the bishop of Tours

This article reexamines the text and interpretation of three crucial passages in Avitus of Vienne's Ep. 46, the only contemporary document attesting the baptism of Clovis, and one passage in Gregory of Tours' Decem Libri Historiarum . The following conclusions relative to the date and circumstances of the baptism can be drawn. A. Avitus addresses Clovis not as if he was a pagan convert, but as if he was a recent Arian sympathiser, possibly even a catechumen. 2. There is no allusion to Clovis's honorary consulship in Ep. 46, hence no terminus post quem of 508. 3. The populus adhue nuper captivus cannot be the Alamans or the newly-converted Franks. Clovis's letter to the Bishops of Aquitaine and Avitus's known involvement in the ransoming of prisoners-of-war are adduced to suggest that the populus may most plausibly be identified with Catholic Gallo-Roman captives taken in the Franco-Visigothic war of 507. If this is right, it provides a terminus post quem , of 507 and suggests a baptism in Christmas 508. 4. Gregory of Tours' account of the Alamannic war is reexamined, and the following conclusions reached: the account fuses a "Clotilde-spool" and a "Constantinian-spool;" the battle against the Alamanni must date to late 506 (evidence from Cassiodorus and Ennodius); but Gregory himself did not know when it took place in absolute terms, and his relative chronology may well be unreliable. Thus the date of the battle and the date of conversion can be uncoupled. The most probable terminus post quem remains the freeing of the populus captivus , probably after the war of 507. The article ends by reexamining the implications of Clovis's and Avitus's relationship and correspondence.     

THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING OF A CRUCIBLE FRAGMENT FROM AN EARLY TIN PROCESSING SITE IN TURKEY

Archaeological exploration in the Taurus mountains at Göltepe in south-central Turkey has uncovered a site indicating the presence of extensive tin ore mining and smelling operations The most recent find of smelting crucible fragments allowed for a thermoluminescence-hased age determination spanning a late fifth to early third millennium BC date. This result is consistent with a number of radiocarbon dates derived for charcoal also found at the site. The importance of this site relates to the possible tin production and subsequent trade with southwestern Asia which would have provided this otherwise scarce ingredient to bronze technology in that area. This date is directly for crucible material and thus confirms the antiquity of tin smelting at Göltepe.     

THE OPAQUE RED GLASS OF CELTIC ENAMELS FROM CONTINENTAL EUROPE

Opaque red glass was used in the Celtic world for enamels and inlays. Forty artefacts, of various dates and found in various places, have been sampled and studied. They all belong to the same type, a soda-lime-silica high lead glass coloured by crystals of cuprous oxide. There is only one subgroup: glass lumps from the Mont-Beuvray oppidum contain manganese, less iron, and less lead. This change could be the result of Roman influence. Although most of these glasses form a surprisingly homogeneous group, no conclusions as to their origin can be inferred from our present knowledge.     

STONES FROM MEDIEVAL GLASSMAKING: A SUITABLE WASTE PRODUCT FOR RECONSTRUCTING AN EARLY STAGE OF THE MELTING PROCESS IN THE MT LECCO GLASS FACTORY*

The Mt Lecco glass factory was one of the most important production centres in Liguria (Italy) during the 14th and 15th centuries. Archaeological evidence indicates that the whole production cycle took place here. During the glassworking process, production defects such as ‘stones’ were identified and discarded. Stones are partially melted, glass‐coated relics of raw materials or fragments of crucible. The study of the microtexture of stones together with microprobe analyses of phases provides a key for understanding the glassmaking procedure carried out in the Mt Lecco glass factory. The melting rate can be inferred from the compositional variability of glass, which suggests fractional melting of the batch. Glass composition indicates that the Mt Lecco production was a mixed‐alkali one, probably made of quartz‐bearing material as vitrifying agents, plant ashes as fluxing agents and dolomitic limestones as stabilizing agents.     

Bayesian Approach to Sapwood Estimates and Felling Dates in Dendrochronology

An improved method of generating sapwood estimates for oak is developed. This suggests a revision of the 95% confidence range from 10–40 to 9–36 rings for trees from southern England. Current methods for estimating felling dates on timbers with incomplete sapwood do not generate true 95% confidence limits, and a Bayesian method for deriving such limits is presented. For timbers with no sapwood, the addition of 12 years to the date of the final ring is shown to give a 95% confidence limit on the terminus post quem for felling. The further application of these methods is illustrated by calculation of the common felling date for timbers from the Great Kitchen at Windsor Castle.     

PLASTER AND MORTAR RADIOCARBON DATING OF NABATEAN AND ISLAMIC STRUCTURES,SOUTH JORDAN*

The study aims to use lime mortars and plasters to radiocarbon date Nabatean and Islamic structures from Petra and Udruh, south Jordan. Fifteen samples from seven structures were characterized by thin‐section, scanning electron and cathodoluminescence microscopy. The lime binders of all the samples and the organic inclusions from nine samples were AMS radiocarbon dated. The dates and the historical data of the samples were compared with each other. The results showed an agreement between the radiocarbon dates of the lime binders and the organic inclusions and the historical data for most of the samples. The radiocarbon dates of the lime binders supported by the radiocarbon dates of the organic inclusions and the archaeological data were helpful in reconstructing a rather precise chronology of the studied structures.     

Southwest Norway at the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition: Landscape Development,Colonization, Site Types,Settlement Patterns

This article contributes a western Norwegian perspective to the ongoing debate on the timing and nature of the earliest colonization of northern Europe. Despite there being a theoretical possibility of Late Glacial settlement, currently available data indicate a populating of the area around the termination of the Pleistocene ca. 10,000 (uncalibrated) yr BP. The earliest radiocarbon date in southwest Norway so far, 9750 BP, is only a terminus ante quem . Environmental, economic, technological and social factors involved as a result of the colonization process are discussed briefly, and trends in the archaeological record are emphasized and commented on. The economy reflected by the first complete annual subsistence patterns is interpreted as having been logistically mobile, highly adaptive and generally of opportunistic character. Particular attention is paid to Early Preboreal coastal and inland settlement of the 'Boknafjord' and 'Myrvatn/Fløyrlivatn' groups, the latter characterized by well-preserved site structures such as tent rings and hearths providing high-resolution radiocarbon dates and palaeobotanical evidence.     

EARLY BRONZE AGE TIN PROCESSING AT KESTEL/GÖLTEPE,ANATOLIA

Chemical analysis of statistically significant numbers of samples including minerals, sediments, soil, host rock as well as powdered materials, crucible accretions and metal artefacts revealed information about the distribution of cassiterite at Kestel and the tin smelting processes that took place at Göltepe c. 2600 BC. Using the ancient technique of vanning for the isolation of tin ore (cassiterite), followed by assaying by blowpipe/charcoal block, as well as crucible smelting with a blowpipe, good tin metal suitable for alloying with copper to make bronze was obtained. There is every indication that tin was mined and smelted in the Early Bronze Age at the Kestel/Göltepe sites.     

TECHNOLOGICAL STUDY OF PTOLEMAIC – EARLY ROMAN FAIENCE FROM MEMPHIS,EGYPT*

Fourteen fragments of faience vessels from the Ptolemaic/Roman period found at the Egyptian site of Memphis, near Cairo, were analysed by SEM. The fragments included high‐relief polychrome vessels, which are first produced in numbers in this period. Analysis allowed the composition and microstructure of the vessels to be assessed and conclusions drawn as to the raw materials of manufacture. Combining this information with archaeological evidence from excavation of the kilns and associated finds, it was possible to reconstruct the production technology of the vessels.     

The Potential for Dating the Old Scatness Site,Shetland, By Optically Stimulated Luminescence

A series of deposits from the agricultural infield of the multiperiod settlement mound, Old Scatness, were investigated for their potential to yield optically stimulated luminescence dates. Luminescence properties of quartz grains were found to vary through the sequence, but dates were successfully obtained from five deposits, including anthropogenic soils, windblown sands and sands within midden deposits. Single‐aliquot equivalent dose measurement was found to be the most appropriate method for dating the deposits. The OSL dates obtained accorded well with the dates provided by archaeological evidence and included the post‐medieval, Iron Age, Bronze Age and Neolithic periods of Shetland, while a substantial midden was dated to the Bronze/Iron Age transition.     

CONIFEROUS WOOD PULP IN TRADITIONAL KOREAN PAPER BETWEEN THE 15TH AND 18TH CENTURIES ad*

One hundred and sixty‐nine fibre samples from books in the Korean collection and 68 samples from books in the Japanese collection at the British Library were analysed. A further 15 samples of Korean paper from a private collection were also examined. The analysis confirmed that most of the papers contained mulberry species (Moraceae family) as the main papermaking material, and other materials, such as hemp, rice straw and reed, which have been commonly known as supplements to traditional Korean papermaking. However, 15 Korean papers and one Japanese paper dating between ad 1498 and 1798 appeared to include coniferous wood fibres. This substantial find supports a previous single find of a coniferous wood fibre in Korean paper. The dates of most of these papers containing wood fibres precede the use of wood pulps in European paper.     

Wine Bottles From Lisbon: Archaeometric Studies Of Two Archaeological Sites Dated From The 17th To The 19th Century

Two sets of wine bottles dated between the end of the 17th and the 19th centuries were characterized by means of μ‐PIXE (major and minor elements) and LA–ICP–MS (trace and REE elements). The fragmented wine bottles were recovered from two archaeological contexts in Lisbon and reach a total of 79 fragments. One of the archaeological bottle sets comes from a house structure that collapsed during the major earthquake in 1755, providing a precise terminus ante quem. The second set comes from the exploratory archaeological intervention performed in Rua do Arsenal, where the Côrte‐Real Palace (built in the 16th century), was discovered. From this site, posterior contexts dated up to the 19th century were considered. This systematic study allowed the glass to be identified as high‐lime, low‐alkali (HLLA) for all the considered chronologies. However, the 19th‐century bottles have a different HLLA composition, suggesting the use of synthetic soda. Comparison with data from literature showed some similarity with English, Belgium and French reported compositions. This is the first systematic attempt to characterize the composition of glass wine bottles circulating in Portugal, giving new insights into their probable provenances, and on the exchange between Portugal and its trading allies.     

POST‐MEDIEVAL CRUCIBLE PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION: A STUDY OF MATERIALS AND MATERIALITIES*

This paper is concerned with the manufacture and trade of post‐medieval crucibles (14th–19th centuries). The analytical study of crucibles from different contexts in Europe and America employed optical microscopy and SEM–EDS, coupled with archaeological and historical data. We identified two major producers of crucibles, both of them in Central Europe, whose products appear widely distributed internationally. The analytical data allow an explanation of the technical reasons behind their superior reputation, as both crucible types shared comparable material properties, such as thermal, chemical and mechanical stability. Conversely, the two crucible types were radically different in their manufacture and appearance. We argue that, besides technical considerations, sensorial aspects such as texture and colour may have played an important role in the perception and choice of materials.     

Chronological Reconstruction of Natfieh Tombs,Northern Jordan

Abstract

This research radiocarbon dates human teeth and bones sampled from seven tombs from the archaeological site of Natfieh, Northern Jordan. The small number of artifact fragments uncovered, looting and disruption of the tombs in antiquity and/or recent times, and the continuity between the Greek and Roman burial traditions and similarity in tomb architecture impede determining accurate dates and chronology of the tombs. This research aims to ascertain the archaeological dates and the chronological sequence of the tombs and the artifacts uncovered. Results show that the probable earliest use of these tombs was between 90 BC and AD 20, and their probable latest use was from AD 126–236. Most probably, at Natfieh new tombs spread northward and carving the tombs started in the lower rock layers and later in the upper layers.     

SOAPSTONE VESSEL CHRONOLOGY AND FUNCTION IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS OF EASTERN TENNESSEE: THE APPLE BARN SITE (40BT90) ASSEMBLAGE

The function and chronology of soapstone vessels in the Eastern Woodlands has been a contentious issue that deserves discussion at a more regional and subregional scale. We provide an overview of the Apple Barn site (40BT90) soapstone vessel assemblage, one of the largest Late Archaic/ Early Woodland collections in the southern Appalachians. Results from residue analysis of pollen, starch, and phytoliths on four vessel fragments reveal the processing of various plants, correlating well with the macrobotanical results from the site. The AMS dates derived from seven sooted samples span ca. 1700 cal. B.C. to ca. 800 cal. B.C., suggesting mundane soapstone vessel use persists later in the southern Appalachians relative to other areas of the Southeast. When soapstone is no longer used at the Apple Barn site, post–750 cal. B.C., there is a significant shift in feature volume and organization, suggesting a change from seasonal group aggregations to semisedentary family tended garden plots. This shift denotes a significant change in foodways where the social and functional ties to soapstone were no longer relevant.     

MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF CERAMIC TILE MOSAIC FROM TWO 17TH‐CENTURY ISLAMIC MONUMENTS IN NORTHERN INDIA

Coloured tiles from two northern Indian monuments were analysed for their body and glaze composition. The results suggest that three different groups of tiles were used, all comprising a stonepaste body with alkali glaze. One group has strong similarities to a major Indian glass group, known as high alumina mineral natron glass, while the other two are similar to Western and Central Asian plant ash glazes, although with much lower lime content. The colorants conform with those usually employed in pre‐modern glazes, with lead‐tin yellow Type I and Type II for opaque yellow, copper blue‐turquoise, cobalt blue, manganese purple, and green through mixing of lead‐tin yellow and copper blue.     

Rediscovering famous assemblages: A rare Bronze Age crucible from El Argar,Spain

A rare open shallow crucible from the British Museum collection, excavated at the Bronze Age site of El Argar in south-east Spain by Louis and Henri Siret, was studied using X-radiography and scanning electron microscopy. The crucible has relatively thick walls, a spout and a non-refractory fabric. It was used for melting copper alloys for various possible purposes, such as alloying, refining, recycling or before casting, at around 1100°C. Both arsenic and tin were detected in various places and concentrations in the analysed specimens. This crucible could have been used during the period of transition from arsenic-rich copper to tin bronzes in the El Argar culture, or used for the recycling of arsenic-rich copper artefacts being alloyed with tin to produce tin bronzes. This melting crucible is a rare example of its kind to have been investigated scientifically, as most crucibles from contemporary sites on the Iberian Peninsula are generally associated with smelting. This study has also crucially shed more light on the types of alloys and variety of activities undertaken during that transitional period between the use of arsenical copper and tin bronzes in this region.