K/AR DATING AS A MEANS OF SOURCING LEVANTINE EPIPALAEOLITHIC BASALT IMPLEMENTS

Through K/Ar dating of basalt implements from two Mount Carmel late Epipalaeolithic sites and samples of locally occurring basalts, it was possible to demonstrate clearly that the prehistoric inhabitants of these sites did not utilize the locally available Upper Cretaceous (88–77 My) basalts. The dates of the basalt implements are of Tertiary-Quaternary age (3.7-<0.250 My) which suggests the exploitation of basalt exposures at least 60 km east of the sites. This is the first direct evidence for long-distance exchange/trade of an essential raw material in the Levant as early as 13000 BP.     

Geochemical sourcing of basalt artifacts from Kaua‘i,Hawaiian Islands

We report on energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) sourcing of 807 basalt artifacts and 34 basalt ecofacts recovered from stratified midden at Nu‘alolo Kai, Kaua‘i. These data are compared with EDXRF analyses of 473 alluvial pebbles from Waimea Canyon, 34 adzes from the Kaua‘i Museum, and published geochemical data for Kaua‘i basalts. Formal tools, such as adzes, chisels, and mirrors were predominantly manufactured from sources not available at Nu‘alolo Kai. Most adzes and chisels are consistent with sources available elsewhere on Kaua‘i, but two basalt mirrors are outside the expected geochemical range of Kaua‘i basalts. In contrast, almost all expedient tools were manufactured from basalts available at Nu‘alolo Kai. These findings support the existence of an island-wide distribution system for adze material on Kaua‘i, and challenges extant models of pre-contact Hawaiian economics to consider the mechanisms through which specialized commodities were produced and distributed.     

Geophysical investigations in the service of Mount Carmel (Israel) prehistoric research

Geophysical investigations in el-Wad Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel, enabled the mapping of the surface of the bedrock and a reconstruction of the depth of the archeological deposits. Seismic refraction and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) provided similar results, indicating the potential value of geophysical studies when one seeks to reconstruct site features and establish future excavation strategies. Results of a GPR survey later conducted in the adjacent Jamal Cave were supported, to a high degree, by subsequent archeological excavations in the course of which Lower and Middle Paleolithic layers were unearthed.A Continuous Vertical Electrical Sounding (CVES) geoelectric survey in the (collapsed) Misliya Cave indicates a low resistivity layer at the upper, central part of the cave, suggesting that lithified archeological deposits, of ca. 4 m, are preserved at the site. This has been supported by a test excavation recently conducted at the site.More intriguing is the case of what, on the basis of the outer morphology of the cliff, seemed to be another collapsed cave just to the north of el-Wad. The CVES survey, at the bottom of the cliff and across the hypothesized cave (or chamber), shows a two-layer model, with a low resistivity (100–200 ohm-m) layer, overlying a layer of high resistivity (8000–10,000 ohm-m). A trial trench indicates that here the bedrock is covered by shallow, recent, surface material, with no archeological value.All three methods of geophysical investigation proved applicable and resulted in the successful evaluation of sites' location, depth and spatial extension, thus forming essential tools in future prehistoric research.     

Micromammal taphonomy of el-Wad Terrace,Mount Carmel,Israel: distinguishing cultural from natural depositional agents in the Late Natufian

A taphonomic analysis of micromammal remains from the Late Natufian deposits of el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel, was conducted in order to test the long-standing premise of owl deposition as the primary accumulating agent. The inferred taphonomic sequence was modeled within an actualistic (recent) comparative framework incorporating a locally derived barn owl pellet collection and an off-site control assemblage of micromammal remains from the cliff overhanging the terrace. The sequence was reconstructed based on multiple types of recorded taphonomic data, comprising skeletal modifications (breakage, digestion, weathering, gnawing, and charring) and age structure. Evidence for post-depositional processes including fluvial transport, trampling, and weathering was isolated and consequently the typical owl imprints were traced through the two actualistic and the archaeological assemblages. Based on the extent of breakage and patterning in skeletal element frequencies it was also possible to scale the preservation potential of primary data in el-Wad Terrace as a discrete site type, intermediate between true cave and open-air depositional environments. Verifying the role of owls as principal agents of accumulation of the el-Wad Terrace micromammal remains enabled the detection of two minor superimposed cultural patterns: consumption of mole rats (Spalax sp.) by the Natufians and commensalism of mice (Mus spp.).     

Long-distance provenance for obsidian artifacts of Mesoamerica Preclassic and Early Classic periods found in the Los Naranjos Archaeological Park (Honduras)

Los Naranjos is one of the most important pre-Columbian human settlements of Honduras related to the south-easternmost border of the Mayan civilization. Although the archaeological site mostly spans from 850 BC to 1250 AD, the present obsidian study was only focused on the Preclassic and Early Classic periods (Jaral, 800–400 BC and Edén, 400 BC–550 AD) where undamaged blades and/or retouched obsidian flakes are rare. In this way, the INAA analyses of 17 obsidian samples, compared with major-trace elements data of Honduran and Guatemalan obsidian sources, are mostly representative of waste flakes. Lithic artifacts of Los Naranjos such as sandstones, basalts, and quartzites come from local geological outcrops; whereas, obsidian provenance has to be searched from sources which are located within a radius up to 300 km far away. San Luis, La Esperanza, and Güinope obsidian sources are located in Honduras while the three most exploited Highland Guatemalan obsidian outcrops, which have been dominating long-distance trade in the Maya area mostly for the Classic-Postclassic periods, are San Martin de Jilotepeque, El Chayal, and Ixtepeque. An Ixtepeque provenance, for all the investigated obsidian samples of Preclassic and Early Classic periods found in the Los Naranjos Archaeological Park, was established, thus emphasizing a long-distance source (180 km). This also confirms that Ixtepeque represents the most important provenance of the obsidian artifacts found in archaeological sites of Western and Central-Western Honduras. The possible role played by some of the most important rivers of Guatemala and Honduras as waterway networks of transport was finally pointed out. New INAA chemical data from the Honduran obsidian source of La Esperanza (“Los Hoyos”, 4 samples) are also reported in this paper.     

Heritage Learners’ versus Second Language Learners’ Source of Errors in Advanced-Level Writing: Case of a Persian Media Course

This paper examines the acquisition particularities of advanced-level students. It also investigates the use of content-based—in this case media material—in teaching advanced-level students, as well as the impact of teaching such material on the students’ writing ability and overall proficiency. Finally, the subtle differences between heritage learners and second language learners are analyzed and discussed. Therefore, this research encompasses both a quantitative and a qualitative study of the issue at stake to ensure reliability of the findings. The results of the study suggest that there is no significant difference between the number of errors made by heritage learners and second language learners; however, the sources of these errors are often different. These sources of error and their possible reasons are discussed in this paper.     

Roman-Period and Byzantine Landscapes Between Sepphoris and Nazareth

Abstract

A reinterpretation of the Roman-period (late first century BC to fourth century AD) and Byzantine-period (early fifth to early seventh century AD) landscapes between Sepphoris and Nazareth, in the Lower Galilee, Israel, is presented. This derives from a multi-period archaeological survey, in September 2004 and September 2005, of a 5 km×3 km transect — Israel grid 1760–2340, 1790–2390. Some of the relevant results from the 2004–2005 seasons are outlined, rather than providing a full report on this survey, which will form part of a forthcoming PEF monograph. For this reason, survey data are described in summary form and — as it is the Roman-period and Byzantine evidence that is the focus of attention — both earlier and later material are mentioned here only in relation to those periods.     

VARIETIES AND SOURCES OF ARTEFACTUAL OBSIDIAN IN THE MIDDLE STONE AGE OF THE MIDDLE AWASH,ETHIOPIA*

Recent investigation of the geochemical provenance of obsidian artefacts from spatially and temporally variable archaeological sites in Ethiopia has shown the diversity of geological sources and concomitant differences in the transport of raw material to archaeological sites, thus allowing reconstruction of the utilization of raw material by early hominids as well as recent humans. We recognize 30 compositionally different obsidians that were used at the Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological sites of Aduma (A8), Halibee Herto, Aladi Springs and Porc Epic in the Middle Awash region. Probable sources of nine of these obsidians are Adokoma, Ayelu, Ida'ale, Assebot, Asboli, Gira‐Ale and Kone. Many compositional types are confined to a single site, but others are shared between sites, although shared obsidians between sites more than 300 km apart are exceptional.     

The Excavation of Hayonim Terrace: An Interim Report

Abstract

The site of Hayonim Terrace contains occupations of two Epipaleolithic complexes: the Natufian and the Geometric Kebaran. The prehistoric occupations of the terrace appear to span a period of transition between hunting/ collecting and food-producing economies. Excavation of the terrace has provided considerable information on the environmental setting and prehistoric adaptive strategies of this period.     

Possible obsidian sources for artifacts from Timor: narrowing the options using chemical data

Measurements made at the Australian National University using laser ablation ICPMS show that none of the 88 analyzed obsidian artifacts from East Timor match either the known Papua New Guinea or the five Island SE Asian source samples in our ANU collections. There is a coastal journey of more than 3000 km between the occurrence of obsidians from the Bismarck Archipelago volcanic province of Papua New Guinea and the Sunda-Banda Arc volcanic chain, yet obsidian artifacts from the two important PNG sources of Talasea and Lou Island are found at coastal Bukit Tengkorak in eastern Sabah at a similar distance along with material that has no known source. Timor lies south of the eastern section of the active volcanic Banda Arc island chain but it is within range of possible rhyolite sources from there. Although there is a continuous chain of around 60 active volcanoes stretching from west Sumatra to the Moluccas most are basaltic to andesitic with few areas likely to produce high silica dacite–rhyolite deposits. This does not exclude the possibility that the volcanic landscapes may contain obsidian, but without detailed survey and chemical analysis of sources from the Sunda-Banda Arc the attribution of the Timor obsidian artifacts remains to be demonstrated. Timor may seem to be an unlikely source for the presence of obsidians as it lacks reports of the silica-rich rhyolite volcanic centers necessary to produce this material. Despite the absence of detailed survey and analysis of Indonesian obsidian sources, especially from the volcanically active Banda Arc, this paper presents evidence that one of two obsidian sources is clearly from Timor while the other, with less certainty, is also from an unknown local source.     

The dynamics of ion layer generation in the 80–150 km altitude region at low and mid-latitudes

The association of sporadic ion and sporadic sodium layers in the low-latitude, 90–100 km altitude region suggests that we must look beyond the windshear theory for details of the formation mechanism of sporadic layers in the 80–150 km altitude region. We present evidence, including specific 85–105 km results from the AIDA-89 and the ALOHA-90 campaigns, that 80–150 km altitude sporadic layers—including sporadic sodium layers—are generated in a complex interplay of tidal and acoustic-gravity wave (AGW) dynamics with temperature-dependent chemistry where wave-produced temperature variations are both adiabatic and dissipative or turbulent (non-reversible) in origin. We suggest that layering processes are best studied with an instrument cluster that includes sodium and iron lidars, MST radar (turbulence), incoherent scatter radar (electron concentration and winds), meteor radar techniques (winds), passive optical/IR imaging techniques, and appropriate rocket payloads to study a significant volume of the 80–150 km altitude region. We introduce the concept of volumtric radar and lidar techniques.     

Preliminary Characterization of Pottery by Cathodoluminescence and SEM–EDX Analyses: An Example from the Yeha Region (Ethiopia)

Yeha was a political and cultural centre of the Ethio‐Sabaean culture (D’MT) in northern Ethiopia and southern Eritrea. Part of the archaeological research deals with pottery of local, regional and imported origin. The research—investigations and examinations—tries to classify local pottery in two ways: first, by analysing the mineralogy of the temper using light microscopy and cathodoluminescence; and, second, by analysing the main element composition of the clay matrix using a scanning electron microscope with energy‐dispersive X‐ray detection (SEM–EDX). The cathodoluminescence shows that the temper material has differences in the colours of feldspars with a similar mineralogical composition. The results demonstrate that the pottery was produced by using local material that originates from various sources in the Yeha region and that the same raw materials were used in different types of pottery.     

THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE MAJOR SOURCES OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBSIDIAN ON HOKKAIDO ISLAND (JAPAN): SHIRATAKI AND OKETO

The geochemical compositions for obsidian from two of the most important sources on the Japanese island of Hokkaido, Shirataki and Oketo, are presented. This work represents the first systematic study of obsidian geochemistry on Hokkaido from the view of modern methodological standards. The study was performed with the help of neutron activation analysis to determine the concentrations for 28 elements. The results obtained allow us to subdivide both sources into two geochemical groups (Shirataki‐A and ‐B; and Oketo‐A and ‐B), with each representing an individual sub‐source. Obsidian from both Shirataki and Oketo sources is identified at archaeological sites located on Hokkaido, on the neighbouring Sakhalin Island and Kurile Islands, and in the lower course of the Amur River basin. The distance of obsidian transport during the Upper Palaeolithic was up to ～250 km, and in the following Neolithic and Palaeometal periods up to ～1200 km. This testifies to the wide distribution of Hokkaido obsidian to archaeological complexes in North‐East Asia and its active transport/exchange in prehistory. The data presented here should be used as a reference for the obsidian geochemistry of Shirataki and Oketo sources from now on.     

INITIAL NOTES ON THE X-RAY FLUORESCENCE CHARACTERIZATION OF THE RHYODACITE SOURCES OF THE TAOS PLATEAU,NEW MEXICO

A preliminary statement of the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence characterization of six spatially discrete rhyodacite sources of the Taos Plateau, New Mexico is presented. Geochemical characterization serves to determine the sources of an initial sample of 30 rhyodacite artifacts from three archaeological sites some 20–40 km distant from the sources. The initial results indicate that barium, strontium and zirconium are particularly effective in identifying and discriminating among the various northern Rio Grande-Taos Plateau rhyodacite sources.     

Viking-Age Sails: Form and Proportion

Archaeological ship-finds have shed much light on the design and construction of vessels from the Viking Age. However, the exact proportions of their sails remain unknown due to the lack of fully preserved sails, or other definite indicators of their proportions. Key Viking-Age ship-finds from Scandinavia—the Oseberg Ship, the Gokstad Ship and Skuldelev 3—have all revealed traces of rigging. In all three finds, the keelson—with the mast position—is preserved, together with fastenings for the sheets and the tack, indicating the breadth of the sail. The sail area can then be estimated based on practical experience of how large a sail the specific ship can carry, in conjunction with hull form and displacement. This article presents reconstructions of the form and dimensions of rigging and sail based on the archaeological finds, evidence from iconographic and written sources, and ethnographic parallels with traditional Nordic boats. When these sources are analysed, not only do the similarities become apparent, but so too does the relative disparity between the archaeological record and the other sources. Preferential selection in terms of which source is given the greatest merit is therefore required, as it is not possible to afford them all equal value.     

SOURCES FOR VALLEY-FILL ALLUVIAL SEDIMENTS: BELLA COOLA RIVER BASIN, BRITISH COLUMBIA

Changes in the grain-size distribution and the lithologi-cal I mineralogical properties of sandy-gravel sediments are used to discriminate between sources for the alluvial valley-fill of Bella Coola River, coastal British Columbia. Spatially variable bedrock sources, ranging from highly resistant quartz monzonites to easily weathered basalts, yield sediments that reflect parent rock characteristics. Local increases in the D₉₅ fraction of bulk gravel samples and the D₅₀ fraction of sand samples can be related to inputs from steeper, heavily glaciated tributaries, or those underlain by fractured basalts of the Fraser Plateau. Where there are similarities in the grain-size properties of the source and the sampled deposit, however, grain-size information alone cannot be used to discriminate between sources. The lithology of Bella Coola alluvium shows a close correspondence with the general distribution of rock types in the basin, suggesting proportional contributions from most tributary sources over the long term. However, sand samples from the floodplain have a mostly volcanic affinity, indicating the dominance of sediment derived from headwater tributaries underlain by this rock type. Admixture of plutonic source sediments is evident in lower Bella Coola River adjacent to alluvial fans, heavily glaciated tributary creeks or rock walls comprised mainly of quartz monzonite. Les changements dans la granulometrie et les proprietes lithologiques et mineralogiques des sediments de gravel sablonneux servent d differencier les sources des depéts alluviaux de la Riviere Bella Coola sur la céte de la Colombie-Britannique. La variation spatiale des sources fondamentales donnent des sediments qui refletent les caracteristiques de la roche-mbe variant des quartz rnonzonites très résistants aux basaltes superficiellement altérés par les agents atmospheriques. Les augmentations locales dans la fraction D₉₅ des echantillons de gravel et la fraction D₅₀ des echantillons de sable peuvent être reliees la contribution des tributaires aux pentes plus escarpees et fortement glaciaires ou ceux qui traversent les basaltes fractures du Plateau Fraser. Cependant, quand il y a des similitudes dans la granulometrie de la source et le dépôt-échantillon, l'information granulometrique seule ne peut pas 6tre employee pour differencier les sources. La lithologie des alluvions de Bella Coola montre une correspondance avec la distribution générale des types de roches dans le bassin, suggérant des contributions proportionnelles des sources tributaires a long terme. Cependant, les échantillons de sable des plaines sujettes à inondations ont en grande part une affinité volcanique, indiquant que la dominance du sédiment provient des tributaires qui traversent ce type de roche. Une addition de sediments de sources plutonique est evidente dans le bas de la Riviere Bella Coola adjacent aux eventails alluviaux, aux ruisseaux tributaires affect& par une forte glaciation, ou aux murs de roches qui comprennent principalement des quartz monzonites.     

87Sr/86Sr: a New Discriminant for Provenancing Neolithic Porcellanite Artifacts from Ireland

Antrim porcellanite (thermally metamorphosed Tertiary laterite) was the most common raw material used in the production of stone implements during the Neolithic in Ireland and was worked at two localities in North Antrim: Tievebulliagh, near Cushendall and Brockley on Rathlin Island.Attempts have been made to provenance material from these two known sources, the most successful to date being the use of geochemical data (Sr and Yppm). Here we present a new geochemical discriminant—Sr isotopic data—which reveal that Tievebulliagh and Brockley porcellanites are distinctive. Present-day⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios form two discrete groupings ranging from 0·705894±25–0·706443±24 at Tievebulliagh and 0·704088±27–0·704587±25 at Brockley. A coherent relationship between⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and Sr (ppm) reiterates the use of Sr content as a discriminant and illustrates the geochemical variability of Sr between these two sources.Although this is a destructive technique,⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr represents the best discriminant to date for Antrim porcellanites and will enable definitive provenancing of porcellanite artifacts from Ireland with important archaeological implications.     

Evaluating background noise: Assessing off-site data from field surveys around the Italic sanctuary of S. Giovanni in Galdo,Molise, Italy

Abstract

This study demonstrates the potential of intensive sampling and off-site analyses to identify evidence of human activity in the past using the off-site data collected around the Italic sanctuary of S. Giovanni in Galdo, Molise, Italy. Rather than employing general and monocausal explanatory models—e.g., large-scale erosion or ancient manuring—to account for off-site material, this study examines ceramic ware variability from surface collections within the local context. It reveals that the ceramic ware variability in samples from low density areas with low visibility can be an important indicator of past human activity. The results of this examination of background noise—or unexplained variability in off-site material—from the Sacred Landscape Project increase the number and types of sites recognized in the surface collections. Furthermore, the analysis reduces the amount of surface material that can be regarded as off-site material and thus changes its composition. The overall results shed new light on the origins of off-site material and whether it should be interpreted as evidence of human activity in historical landscapes.     

Ceremonial objects or household items? Non‐destructive μ‐XRD2 and μ‐XRF studies on three Neolithic hematite axes from Qatar

Three small stone axes were collected by the joint Qatari‐German South Qatar Survey Project (SQSP) at two places close to the eastern and western coast of Qatar in autumn 2012. Associated with settlement remains, flint artefacts and pieces of ?Ubaid pottery, the implements have been dated to the fifth millennium BCE. Non‐destructive μ‐XRD² and μ‐XRF analyses could, for the first time, prove the use of hematite as the raw material for the manufacture of these tools in Arabia. The absence of major hematite sources in the region and the special characteristics of hematite — a unique metallic shine of polished pieces and the blood‐red colour that appears during the manufacturing process — suggest the highly symbolic character of these objects.     

European Trade in Malawi: The Glass Bead Evidence

In most African contexts, glass beads are evidence of direct and indirect exchanges between communities and are often useful chronological markers. Their analysis contributes to a better understanding of the social relationships between ancient societies. Over the last decade, the archaeometric analysis of glass beads has gained ground in Sub-Saharan Africa, but large regions across southeastern Africa have remained underexplored. Glass beads excavated from the Hora 1, Hora 5, and Mazinga 1 sites in the Kasitu Valley of the Mzimba District of northern Malawi were analyzed using laser ablation—inductively coupled plasma—mass spectrometry (LA-ICP- MS). These are granitic rock shelter sites located 40 km from Lake Malawi. They have predominantly Early Holocene and Pleistocene deposits but with a scattering of more recent material at the top. Analysis revealed that most of the beads were from European manufacture with one exception—a bead that has a composition typical of South Asia and that circulated from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century AD. Although Europeans were not present in the region before the second part of the nineteenth century, the presence of European beads testifies to trade directly or indirectly involving Europeans, most likely in association with increased trade in ivory and enslaved persons. The presence of the bead from South Asia and two cowrie beads from a fourth nearby site (Kadawonda 1) that dates to the seventh century AD show that European trade was the most recent manifestation of connections between the hinterland and the coast.