The first direct evidence of pre-columbian sources of palygorskite for Maya Blue

Maya Blue, a nano-structured clay–organic complex of palygorskite and indigo, was used predominantly before the Spanish Conquest. It has fascinated chemists, material scientists, archaeologists and art historians for decades because it is resistant to the effect of acids, alkalis, and other reagents, and its rich color has persisted for centuries in the harsh tropical climate of southern Mesoamerica. One of its components, palygorskite, is part of modern Maya indigenous knowledge, and ethnohistoric and archaeological data suggest that its modern sources were probably utilized in Prehispanic times. Yet no direct evidence verifies that palygorskite was actually mined from these sources to make Maya Blue. Here we characterize these sources compositionally, and compare our analyses to those of Maya Blue from Chichén Itzá and Palenque. We demonstrate that the palygorskite in most of these samples came from modern mines, providing the first direct evidence for the use of these sources for making Maya Blue. These findings reveal that modern Maya indigenous knowledge about palygorskite, its mining, and its source locations, is at least seven centuries old.     

SYNTHESIS AND ACID RESISTANCE OF MAYA BLUE PIGMENT*

Maya blue is an organo‐clay artificial pigment composed of indigo and palygorskite. It was invented and frequently used in Mesoamerica in ancient times (eighth to 16th centuries). We analyse in this paper one of the characteristics of Maya blue that has attracted the attention of scientists since its rediscovery in 1931: its high stability against chemical aggression (acids, alkalis, solvents, etc.) and biodegradation, which has permitted the survival of many works of art for centuries in hostile environments, such as the tropical forest. We have reproduced the different methods proposed to produce a synthetic pigment with the characteristics of the ancient Maya blue. The stability of the pigments produced using either palygorskite or sepiolite has been analysed by performing acid attacks of different intensities. The results are analysed in terms of pigment decolouration and destruction of the clay lattice, revealed by X‐ray diffraction. Palygorskite pigments are much more resistant than sepiolite pigments. It is shown that indigo does not protect the clay lattice against acid aggression. We show that Maya blue is an extremely resistant pigment, but it can be destroyed using very intense acid treatment under reflux.     

Central petén blue pigment: A maya blue source outside of Yucatán,México

Much of the research on Maya Blue has focused on locating palygorskite sources in northern Yucatán, México. To that end, Arnold et al. (2007) reported seven discriminate source mineral locations for palygorskite used in the manufacture of Maya Blue. Recently, a blue pigment was excavated from the archaeological site of Ixlú, El Petén, Guatemala and LA-ICP-MS and INAA analyses were conducted to determine if the pigment had the traditional Maya Blue structure and if it was from one of the seven mineral sources in México. Geochemical analyses demonstrate that the Ixlú pigment has the traditional Maya Blue structure, but it was manufactured from clays in central Petén, Guatemala. These new data suggest that the knowledge of Maya Blue manufacture was transferred and not the actual pigment and they reveal another source for Maya Blue manufacture outside of the Yucatán peninsula.     

Stable Isotopic Evidence of Ancient Maya Diet at Caledonia,Cayo District,Belize

The skeletal remains of 18 individuals interred at the ancient Maya site of Caledonia (100 to 1000 C.E.), located in the Cayo District of Belize, w ere sampled for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis in order to reconstruct their diet. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in 18 bone collagen samples and stable carbon isotope ratios in bioapatite from 15 bone and 6 tooth enamel samples were assessed. Small sample sizes precluded the assessment of dietary variation with respect to age, sex, social status or time period among the Caledonia Maya. However, the sampled individuals consumed a varied diet consisting of maize, supplemented with some C₃ plants, terrestrial herbivores and/or lower order freshwater resources such as snails and molluscs and possibly maize‐fed animals. This dietary variability with an emphasis on maize is unsurprising given the biological diversity surrounding the site and the known importance of this crop to the ancient Maya. As expected, the isotopic values from Caledonia are similar to those from nearby sites from similar time periods. However, four individuals exhibit a marine dietary signature, possibly indicating inland trade of marine resources from coastal sites, or the migration of coastal people to Caledonia. This study demonstrates the validity of sampling small, fragmented collections from minor Maya centres in order to gain valuable insight into ancient Maya dietary practices. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

THE OCCURRENCE OF PALYGORSKITE IN THE YUCATÁN PENINSULA: ETHNO‐HISTORIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS*

Palygorskite is a rare clay mineral used by the ancient Mayas for fabricating the Maya blue pigment and for other purposes. It seems to have been obtained from a restricted area in the Yucatán peninsula where important archaeological sites are found. Geological samples from different localities in this area show a high content in palygorskite, indicating that this clay is widespread in Yucatán. Combining structural, morphological, compositional and geochemical methods, we analysed the common characteristics of Yucatecan palygorskites, and compared them with palygorskites from other origins around the world. These results can be used for defining a fingerprint of Yucatecan palygorskite to be used in provenance studies of archaeological artefacts, in particular the Maya blue pigment.     

Spectrochemical Characterization of Red Pigments Used in Classic Period Maya Funerary Practices

We studied the composition, colour chromaticity and form of application of red pigments in human bone samples from seven Classic period Lowland Maya sites. The samples were analysed by X‐ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X‐ray energy‐dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Colour was measured using conventional colour identification standards (Munsell) and reflectance spectroscopy. Cinnabar and hematite were identified as the pigments used. We conclude that the reflectance method has advantages over conventional visual results, as it provides precise, objective and quantifiable optical data to distinguish the chromaticity, colour saturation and brightness of the pigments.     

DISCOVERY AND CHARACTERIZATION OF AN UNKNOWN BLUE‐GREEN MAYA PIGMENT: VESZELYITE*

Blue‐green mosaic and polychrome masks and funerary offerings from the royal tombs of Calakmul, Mexico, were analysed by scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (SEM‐EDS), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), and particle induced X‐ray emission (PIXE). This led to the first identification of the use of veszelyite, a rare hydrated copper‐zinc phosphate, as green pigment. Analyses of a geological sample of this mineral have been done to confirm the characterization of this Mayan pigment, which might help determine pre‐Columbian trade routes of precious and luxury objects in the ancient Maya Classic period (ad 250–800).     

Influence of Taoism on the invention of the purple pigment used on the Qin terracotta warriors

Until the 19th century, most pigments were based on naturally occurring colored minerals and dyes, with three significant exceptions: Egyptian Blue, Chinese Blue/Purple and Maya Blue. The former two are alkaline-earth copper silicates, and because of this similarity it has been proposed that the Chinese pigments were derived from Egyptian Blue. Herein, we analyzed clumps of pigment from the Qin warriors and discovered that in spite of the structural similarity to Egyptian Blue, the micro-structural morphology of Chinese Purple is very different. Therefore, we believe that the synthesis technology for the Chinese pigments was a by-product of high-refractive index glasses (artificial jades) produced by Taoist monks. Further, the disappearance of these pigments from Chinese art and monuments concurrently with the decline of Taoism not only substantiates the link between the two, but also gives a striking example of how cultural changes in the society affected the scientific developments in ancient China.     

From Crafting to Caching: Technological and Iconographic Analyses of Blue Creek Cache 37

This paper presents technological and iconographic analyses of a Late Classic (a.d. 600–830) lithics cache recovered from the ancient Maya site of Blue Creek, Belize. The cache consisted of 21 obsidian prismatic blades and a number of chert artifacts, including 21 stemmed bifaces, a large laurel leaf biface, and a tridentate eccentric. The technological analysis of the stemmed bifaces identified three distinct stem production techniques that may be attributable to a combination of idiosyncratic knapping gestures and laterality, or handedness. A survey of Maya iconography demonstrated that large laurel-leaf bifaces and tridentate eccentrics occur in scenes depicting sacrifice and the burning of human remains, often by ritual specialists titled ch’ajoom, or “person of incense.” It is suggested that the presence of a large laurel-leaf biface and tridentate eccentric in the cache may indicate that Blue Creek was the residence of ch’ajoom at some point during the Late Classic period.     

Preliminary geochemical assessment of limestone resources and stone use at Maya sites in the Three Rivers Region,Belize

The carbonate bedrock of northwestern Belize is poorly understood from the standpoint of both geochemistry and the use of stone in prehispanic Maya sites for buildings and monuments. The friable nature of the rock in this topographically rugged area makes it especially difficult to distinguish monuments from bedrock spall, as little carving, if any, survives, and identification rests on location and positioning. The research presented here analyzed 63 limestone samples collected from two sites in the Three Rivers Region of Belize. ICP-MS and ICP-AES were used to characterize the major, minor, and trace element chemistry of the limestone bedrock of the region and determine the amount of geochemical variability. Another important objective was attempting to trace the movement of monument stone and determining whether it was imported from outside of the sites. Bedrock, quarries, and possible monuments were all sampled for these purposes. Bedrock proved to be similar across wide areas. However, at Chawak But'o'ob, along the flank of the Rio Bravo, changes downslope in Mg concentration suggest a leaching of the bedrock by meteoric waters based on differences in porosity. At Maax Na, a hilltop site, in contrast, such leaching is not as apparent. Many monuments at both sites were found to be composed of stone similar in chemistry to the local bedrock, including several of the identifiable stelae. However, our analyses also revealed that a few monuments at Maax Na were made of material with a different chemical composition, apparently from stone imported to the site. These results suggest that the Maya deliberately selected certain types of limestone for certain purposes, and may even have traded in non-local rock. Overall, the methods used in this pilot study indicate there is real potential in more intensive, regional assessments of the materials used at archaeological sites, even in areas where the local stone does not have a distinctive geochemical signature.     

The Conservation of Maya Cultural Heritage: Searching for Solutions in a Troubled Region

Abstract

Maya archaeological heritage continues to be a victim of looting, urbanization, and development despite the increased visibility of the issue within the field of archaeology. This article provides a generalized network analysis of the destruction of Maya cultural heritage in southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, western Honduras, and EI Salvador based on interviews conducted in 2006 by the Maya Area Cultural Heritage Initiative (MACHI) with archaeologists, government officials, non-governmental organizations, and Maya leaders. According to informants, interest among local people to conserve archaeological sites has been deeply affected by a lack of education about both Maya archaeology and the national and international laws assuring protection of cultural heritage; many local people, including members of modern Maya groups, see little value in the conservation of the Precolumbian past. MACHI suggests that an effective way to mitigate looting and the wanton destruction of Maya cultural heritage is through the promotion of a variety of educational initiatives (ranging from informal to institutional, for both children and adults) that seek to combine the knowledge of Western archaeological science with indigenous ways of knowing the past. Such initiatives could encourage the construction of positive relationships between indigenous and other local peoples and archaeological remains.     

Maya Reborn

Since the mid-1980s there has been tremendous interest among anthropologists and Maya speakers in preserving, promoting, and revitalizing aspects of Maya culture throughout Mesoamerica. While the emphasis and intensity of this effort varies regionally, ethnographers have documented efforts to revitalize Maya theater in Chiapas, to promote spoken Maya in Guatemala, to excavate new ruin sites in Yucatan, and to reinvigorate Maya literature, music, and dance in all three areas.     

Discovering ancient Maya settlements using airborne radar elevation data

This report presents the results of using NASA/JPL airborne synthetic aperture radar data (AIRSAR) to detect ancient Maya settlements beneath jungle canopy in Guatemala. AIRSAR stands out from previous applications of radar remote sensing in the Maya lowlands because of its canopy-penetrating capabilities. The authors offer an overview of the AIRSAR technology, followed by a case study in which the AIRSAR data receive testing in the field. Reconnaissance in the region around the Maya site of El Zotz led to the discovery of two new sites, including the medium-sized settlement of La Avispa. AIRSAR also aided archaeologists in detecting zones of residential settlement around the site core of El Zotz. This research will serve as a guide for future applications of radar remote sensing in Maya archaeology.     

Building a high-resolution chronology at the Maya archaeological site of El Palmar,Mexico

This paper discusses how detailed analyses of archaeological contexts and macrobotanical remains are critical for building a high-resolution chronology in archaeological research. While the application of Bayesian modelling has improved chronology-building significantly, archaeologists have sometimes neglected different dates recovered from the same depositional layer without further scrutiny. Based on 78 radiocarbon samples, this problem is challenged by building a high-resolution chronology of the Guzmán Group, a small plaza compound of the ancient Maya city of El Palmar, Mexico. The results permit a deeper understanding of relationships between dynastic interactions and the emergence of non-royal elites in Classic Maya society.     

Methods for assessing stormwater management at archaeological sites: Copan Ruins case study

Archaeological sites may be discovered by fortuitous soil erosion, but their protection requires deliberative stormwater management plans and estimates of runoff volumes. This paper uses the Maya site of Copan, Honduras to demonstrate widely applicable methods to estimate runoff, including use of satellite rainfall data processed by single parameter models. Our analysis compares present day estimates of runoff and erosion with those of two historic periods, 900 A.D during peak Maya occupation of the Great Plaza, and 1800 A.D. prior to excavation when the site was mostly forest covered. For each period, the watershed area, soil, land cover, and rainfall data were used with a single parameter Curve Number model to estimate the runoff volume for annual to decadal storms. The maximum runoff depth and erosive potential in conveyance channels was then computed with the HEC-RAS model. The models did not predict runoff would occur for the forested period of 1800 A.D., but predicted that runoff for 900 and post-1800 A.D was large enough to cause the erosion observed in the drainage channel today. Our results provide runoff magnitudes that demonstrate the need for Copan Maya designed stormwater removal infrastructure described in earlier archaeological analysis. The need for stormwater removal was also designed into the wet Maya site of Palenque, while stormwater capture and storage was designed into the Maya sites of Tikal, a drier site due to local drainage characteristics and water availability. Methods used in stormwater runoff analysis can empower communities and managers to develop scientifically and culturally appropriate non-structural management methods to conserve archaeological sites.     

“With the Gifts and Good Treatment That He Gave Them”: Elite Maya Adoption of Spanish Material Culture at Progresso Lagoon,Belize

Spanish artifacts make up a tiny percentage of all artifacts found on the west shore of Progresso Lagoon, a Maya community in northern Belize occupied from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. Textual references suggest that Spanish encomenderos distributed these objects as “gifts” during reduction and pacification efforts, but the careful distribution of these artifacts suggests specific political and economic choices made by Maya individuals. This article compares Spanish material culture from Progresso Lagoon with other Maya sites along the frontier of the Spanish colony, in an attempt to define how strategies of Maya consumption of foreign objects varied with intensity of colonial interaction, social status, and function. The consumption of Spanish artifacts at Progresso Lagoon suggests elite strategies for retaining legitimacy in the uncertain political and economic climate of the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries.     

A SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION OF PIGMENT AND CERAMIC SAMPLES FROM COPÁN,HONDURAS*

A combination of micro‐Raman spectroscopy, micro‐infrared spectroscopy and SEM–EDX was employed to characterize decorative pigments on Classic Maya ceramics from Copán, Honduras. Variation in red paint mixtures was correlated with changing ceramic types and improvements in process and firing techniques. We have confirmed the use of specular hematite on Coner ceramics by the difference in intensities of Raman bands. Different compositions of brown paint were correlated with imported and local wares. The carbon‐iron composition of the ceramic type, Surlo Brown, was confirmed. By combining micro‐Raman analysis with micro‐ATR infrared and SEM–EDX, we have achieved a more comprehensive characterization of the paint mixtures. These spectroscopic techniques can be used non‐destructively on raw samples as a rapid confirmation of ceramic type.     

Human biology in the Classic Maya collapse: Evidence from paleopathology and paleodiet

We review evidence from human biology—paleopathological and isotopic paleodietary studies on ancient Maya skeletons—to assess the validity of ecological models of the Classic Maya collapse, in which elevated disease and deteriorating diet are commonly assumed. To be upheld, the health arguments of ecological models require that the Maya disease burden (1) was greater than that for many other societies and (2) increased over the span of occupation. The dietary argument requires (1) consistent change in diet from Preclassic and Early Classic Periods to the Terminal Classic and (2) increasing social divergence in diet. A correlation between diet and disease is necessary to link these arguments. Neither pathology nor isotopic data consistently support these criteria. Instead, it appears that local environmental and political factors created diversity in both disease burden and diet. In view of the human biological data, we are skeptical of ecological models as generalized explanations for the abandonment of Classic Maya sites in the southern lowlands.