Pleistocene connexions between Africa and Southwest Asia: an archaeological perspective

This paper investigates the archaeological evidence for direct prehistoric connexions between Southwest Asia and Africa during the Palaeolithic period. The importance of the ‘Levantine Corridor’ bridging the two continents is stressed in describing the dispersal ofHomo erectus. The continental bridge could have been through the Nile Valley during the Late Acheulian and the emergence of earlyHomo sapiens. Upper Palaeolithic and especially Epi-Palaeolithic dispersal during the terminal Pleistocene are discussed. The role of Egyptian-Levantine connexions in the context of the complex situation which led to sedentism is stressed.     

The Upper Pleistocene and early Holocene prehistory of the Horn of Africa

The last major synthesis of the Upper Pleistocene and early Holocene prehistory of the Horn was published over thirty years ago. This paper therefore attempts critically to review the current state of knowledge and research pertaining to Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age hunter/gatherer culture history and adaptation in the region that now encompasses Somalia, Ethiopia and Djibouti. Although the archaeological record still suffers from major gaps in information, chronometric analyses as well as subsistence, settlement and other behavioural data from stratified excavated sites have begun to reveal the Horn's potential for providing important contributions to understanding late Quaternary hunter/gatherer cultural development.

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Résumé Plus de trente ans se sont écoulés depuis la parution de la dernière grande synthèse sur la préhistoire de la Corne de l'Afrique au Pléistocène Supérieur et au début de l'Holocène. Cet article essaie donc de passer en revue de façon critique l'état actuel des connaissances et la recherche sur l'histoire culturelle et sur l'adaptation Middle Stone Age et Later Stone Age dans la région qui comprend la Somalie, l'Ethiopie et le Djibouti. Bien que les documents archéologiques souffrent encore de lacunes majeures en ce qui concerne les informations, les analyses chronométriques et les moyens de subsistance, des données sur les habitations et sur d'autres aspects du comportement obtenus de gisements stratifiés fouillés ont commencé à dévoiler que la Corne pourra éventuellement fournir des contributions importantes à notre compréhension du développement culturel des chasseurs-cueilleurs du Quaternaire final.

     

The archaeological significance of animal bones from Acheulean sites in southern Africa

Acheulean faunal samples from southern Africa usually contain taxa which are unknown in Upper Pleistocene or Holocene contexts and which suggest that the associated artifacts date mainly from the Middle Pleistocene or possibly the late Lower Pleistocene, between perhaps 1,000,000 and 130,000 years ago. Together with sedimentological evidence, the faunas also indicate that the associated Acheulean people enjoyed unusually moist conditions. There is in fact no evidence for Acheulean presence under conditions as dry as, or drier than, historic ones. The available faunas come mainly from open-air contexts where natural deaths, carnivore killing and scavenging, and possible human hunting and butchering are scrambled, and no direct inferences can be drawn about Acheulean hunting ability. However, if it is fair to extrapolate backwards from their better-documented Middle Stone Age successors, Acheulean people probably rarely, if ever, killed the large ungulates that are so common in their sites.

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Résumé Parmi les ensembles de la faune acheuléenne provenant de l'Afrique du sud se trouvent souvent des taxa qui sont inconnus dans les gisements de l'âge holocène ou du pleistocène supérieur. Cette observation nous amène à suggérer que les outils associés avec cette faune datent principalement du Pleistocène moyen ou peut-être même du Pleistocène inférieur tardif, dans la période, 1,000,000 à 130,000 BP environ. Ces faunes, considérées conjointement avec les témoignages sédimentologiques, montrent que ces gens acheuléens ont profités d'un climat anormalement humide. A vrai dire, il n'y a aucune preuve d'une occupation acheuléenne dans des conditions aussi sèches ou plus sèches que celles de l'époque historique. La plupart des faunes dont on dispose aujourd'hui proviennent des gisements de plein-air ou les évidences de la mortalité naturelle, les restes de la proie des carnassiers, et par l'homme sont mélangées, et nous ne sommes pas permis d'en déduire des conclusions au sujet de la compétence des populations acheuléennes au niveau de la chasse. Si cependant on peut extrapoler en arrière de leurs successeurs mieux connus de l'âge de la pierre moyen, il est vraisemblable que les hommes acheuléens n'ont jamais, ou presque jamais, tués les grands ongulés dont les restes sont si nombreux dans leur sites.

     

The consequences of Wari contact in the Nasca region during the Middle Horizon: archaeological,skeletal, and isotopic evidence

During the Middle Horizon (AD 650–1000), the Wari polity expanded its sphere of control in various regions of the Andes, including Nasca on the south coast of Peru. The nature of the interaction between Wari and local communities varied. This study explores the consequences of Wari contact in the Nasca region at the site of La Tiza, which includes individuals dated to the Early Intermediate, Middle Horizon, and Late Intermediate periods. Using evidence for burial ritual along with demographic, paleopathological and isotopic data, population composition, mobility, diet, and health are investigated. δ¹³C data indicate a relatively stable diet through time at La Tiza with evidence for continued maize consumption, and paleopathological results indicate health problems associated with this type of diet. δ¹⁸O and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr data suggest that most of the individuals buried at La Tiza were local to the area. However, two female adults from the Middle Horizon burials are characterized as nonlocal based on δ¹⁸O and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values and several individuals overlap with the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr local range for the Wari heartland. In conjunction with the use of new tomb types during this period these results highlight the ideological and populational changes occurring with Wari contact at La Tiza.     

Palaeopathology in late Pleistocene and early Holocene Central Plains bison: dental enamel hypoplasia,fluoride toxicosis and the archaeological record

Multiple formative agents are cited for dental enamel hypoplasia (DEH) in modern and fossil mammals. Here, four late Pleistocene-early Holocene bison assemblages from the Central Great Plains are analyzed for DEH and other bone pathologies to investigate the possible influence of chronic fluoride toxicosis, a condition that may have presented a long-term source of duress for prehistoric bison and devalued them as nutritional resources to human hunters. Although DEH is present in all the analyzed assemblages, the lack of corroborating dental and post-cranial anomalies consistent with chronic fluoride toxicosis speaks against it as a primary factor of DEH formation or general ill health in these bison. Rather, maternal nutritional stress, weaning, and seasonal forage condition are invoked as probable promoters of DEH formation. Other identified abnormalities are discussed in reference to their contribution to reduced feeding efficiency and lameness, as are their roles in developing palaeoecological models applicable to archaeological questions about ancient human lifeways.     

A comparison of archaeological and dental evidence to determine diet at a predynastic Egyptian site

This paper explores the relationship between dietary evidence found in the archaeological record and that of the dentitions on a sample of working class Predynastic Egyptians from Hierakonpolis in Upper Egypt. The samples consist of 196 individuals (3800–3600BC) ranging from 6 years to over 50 years of age. Archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence at Hierakonpolis suggests manufacture of bread, presence of some domesticated animals, hunting and fishing, and a number of fruits and vegetables. Dental indicators of diet studied include carious lesions, macrowear, microwear and linear enamel hypoplasia. The patterns on the dentition match well with a number of food stuffs found as burial offerings and within settlements at Hierakonpolis. Overall, individuals at Hierakonpolis exhibited a low incidence of small carious lesions, a low frequency of acute hypoplastic defects, steady attrition, few microwear features, a low density of large (> 4 microns) pits, and wide scratches with poorly defined margins. Based on the dentition, the working class population would have relied heavily on bread and raw, but also consumed some meat and/or fish. Within sample variation shows that the proportion of certain food categories differ between adult males and females and between adults and juveniles. LEH data suggests that children suffered no long‐term starvation or chronic stress. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Applied geomorphology and archaeological survey strategy for sites of Pleistocene age: An example from Central Alaska

The development of a survey strategy for archaeological sites of Pleistocene age through the application of historical geomorphology is described. Geomorphic contexts in the northern foothills of the Alaska Range with potential for producing archaeological remains from the 30,000-12,000 bp interval were identified and subjected to exploratory testing. Contexts were selected on the basis of estimated age, palaeotopographic setting and geomorphic history, and included glaciofluvial outwash, side-valley fan alluvium, loessic colluvium and primary frozen loess. Testing was eventually focused on formerly deflated terrace surfaces—a potential source area for artifacts redeposited in the outwash or alluvium. Although the results of the exploratory testing were negative, and archaeological sites in the region remain confined to loess deposits of the later Late Glacial (12,000-10,000 bp), discoveries in other parts of Beringia suggest that sites of earlier Late Glacial age (14,000-12,000 bp) are also likely to be present in the foothills. The application of historical geomorphology in surveys for early prehistoric sites is essential for effective use of available resources and for maximizing the significance of the results (positive or negative).     

Identification of fossil hairs in Parahyaena brunnea coprolites from Middle Pleistocene deposits at Gladysvale cave,South Africa

This research focuses on scale pattern and cross sectional morphology of hair to identify an expanded sample of fossil hairs from Parahyaena brunnea coprolites from Gladysvale cave in the Sterkfontein Valley, South Africa. The coprolites are part of a brown hyaena latrine preserved in calcified cave sediment dated to the Middle Pleistocene (257–195 ka). Forty-eight fossil hairs were extracted from 12 coprolites using fine tweezers and a binocular microscope, and examined using a scanning electron microscope. Hair identification was based on consultation of standard guides to hair identification and comparison with our own collection of samples of guard hairs from 15 previously undocumented taxa of indigenous southern African mammals. Samples were taken from the back of pelts curated at the Johannesburg Zoo and Ditsong National Museum of Natural History (formerly Transvaal Museum, Pretoria). Based on the fossil hairs identified here, this research has established that brown hyaenas shared the Sterkfontein Valley with hominins, warthog, impala, zebra and kudu. Apart from humans, these animals are associated with savanna grasslands, much like the Highveld environment of today. These findings support the previous tentative identification of fossil human hair in the coprolites, provide a new source of information on the local Middle Pleistocene fossil mammal community, and insight into the environment in which archaic and emerging modern humans in the interior of the African subcontinent lived.     

The history of stones: behavioural inferences and temporal resolution of an archaeological assemblage from the Middle Palaeolithic

Behavioural issues are a main focus of current Palaeolithic research, especially where the archaeological record of archaic hominids is concerned. Often these issues are approached using archaeological assemblages that are palimpsests defined exclusively by stratigraphic criteria. The aim of this paper is to discuss whether such assemblages are adequate for solving behavioural questions. As a case study, we will present the lithic provisioning strategies documented in level L of the Abric Romaní Middle Palaeolithic site. The results of this study suggest that the number of events and/or the amount of time included in the archaeological assemblages could be relevant when explaining the interassemblage variability, given that palimpsests tend to reduce the behavioural variability. If we want to approach the behavioural domain, we need archaeological assemblages of higher temporal resolution, defined through the identification of single activity events.     

The signs of the sacred: Identifying shamans using archaeological evidence

Anthropologists have determined that shamanism is a robust cross-cultural pattern, but they still have many methodological and theoretical issues to resolve. Central to archaeological religious studies is the need to develop a general and rigorous methodology for identifying the presence and structure of shamanism. This discussion begins by discussing shamans as a polythetic class and proposes that shamans and priests as they are commonly defined do not represent dichotomous religious structures, but rather reflect two ends of a continuum. The paper then presents a methodology for identifying and studying shamanism based on cross-cultural regularities in shamanic tools (sacra) and shamanic experiences. The methodology is then applied to the Casas Grandes region and Pottery Mound, both from the North American Southwest, and indicates that shamanic ritual was likely present during the late prehistoric occupation of the region.     

The phylogenetic significance of the Middle Pleistocene Narmada hominin cranium from central India

A parsimony analysis of the Narmada cranium from central India and a number of other demes and species of Homo concludes that the Narmada hominin shares a closer relationship with the European Steinheim specimen, than with Asian H. erectus or H. pekinensis. This suggests that the population represented by the Narmada cranium is likely to have had its origins in Europe rather than in Asia. Overall the available evidence supports an ‘Out of Africa’ scenario, as the early Asian hominins belong to a distinct clade which has no extant descendants and thus appear to represent an evolutionary ‘dead end’. The later African and European hominins are defined by a clade including early H. sapiens from Africa. The main difference between these two distinct clades is that the H. erectus lineage is defined by increasing degrees of neuro‐orbital disjunction associated with increased anterior cranial base extension, while the lineage leading to early H. sapiens is characterized by the opposite condition of reduced neuro‐orbital disjunction associated with increased anterior cranial base flexion. While there is also evidence of differential patterns of head and neck musculature between these two clades, they are of secondary importance. Preliminary dating of bovid remains found in association with the hominin cranium by the gamma spectrometric U‐series dating technique suggests a tentative minimum age of not less than 236,000 years. This is in agreement with evidence from biostratigraphical studies of the Boulder Conglomerate, which place these deposits in the Middle Pleistocene. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Pictish Mirror Symbol and archaeological evidence for mirrors in Scotland

The archaeological evidence for mirrors in Iron Age, Roman and Early Historic Scotland is examined and compared with the depiction of Mirror Symbols on Pictish sculpture. Bar-, shaped- and triangular-handled mirrors which occur in the archaeological record are all represented on Pictish sculpture, and other types of mirror unknown archaeologically from Scotland also occur on Pictish sculpture. The Pictish Mirror symbol, either alone or in conjunction with the Comb symbol, is usually thought to have acted as a qualifier for other pairs of symbols and to be feminine; but the evidence does not support this and it probably acted as a status qualifier for particular individuals rather than for other symbols, and may be linked to royalty.     

The Definition of Spatial Units in Middle Palaeolithic Sites: The Hearth-Related Assemblages

This paper deals with hearth-related accumulations in Middle Palaeolithic sites. Spatial behaviour is a key to understanding the cultural capabilities of ancient hominids. Ethnoarchaeological and archaeological research has shown that hearth-related assemblages are a basic feature in the spatial behaviour of modern and prehistoric hunter–gatherers. In this paper, we propose a methodology for analysing archaeological accumulations and study a series of hearth-related assemblages from the Abric Romanı́ Middle Palaeolithic site (Capellades, Spain). We also analyse the degree of contemporaneity between the different activity episodes documented at each archaeological accumulation. Our results suggest that the characteristics of domestic areas in this site are not substantially different from those observed in ethnoarchaeological contexts and Upper Palaeolithic sites.     

Diet and mobility in Middle Archaic Florida: stable isotopic and faunal evidence from the Harris Creek archaeological site (8Vo24), Tick Island

We explore diet and mobility in Middle Archaic Florida using human burials and faunal remains from the Harris Creek archaeological site (8Vo24) on Tick Island. We conducted stable carbon and oxygen isotopic (δ¹³C, δ¹⁸O) analyses of 50 human enamel samples and strontium isotopic (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) analysis of a subset of 10. Most individuals (46/50) subsisted on local freshwater and terrestrial resources, with relatively depleted δ¹³C values (C₃) and δ¹⁸O values matching those of central and north Florida water resources within the St. Johns River valley. Eight of 10 burials have local, within valley ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values. Two human burials yield marine δ¹³C and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values, which we interpret as evidence for across valley movement from the coast. Another two individuals show depleted δ¹⁸O values, likely obtained from northern rivers. We also identified potential food resources and non-local foods from the Harris Creek faunal assemblage. We found six species with estuarine and marine habitat preferences; two of which, whelk and quahog, indicate that people of Harris Creek traveled to or traded with coastal areas.     

Elevated lead exposure in Roman occupants of Londinium: New evidence from the archaeological record

The evolution of metallurgical practices over several millennia has resulted in human exposures to a diverse variety of toxic elements. These exposures were not just confined to the metalworkers, but in many cases broadly impacted the larger community and society. The role of lead in Roman civilization is particularly fascinating, where the available evidence of lead use in a myriad of applications by Roman civilization suggests the potential for elevated exposures. The present paper addresses the hypothesis that because of these practices, Roman occupants of ancient Londinium (43–410 ad ) were exposed to levels of lead that far exceeded exposures in the preceding populations of Iron Age Britain (700 bc –43 ad ). The elemental content and stable lead and strontium isotopic signatures of 30 femora from three Londinium cemeteries and radiocarbon-dated representative burials were examined and the results then compared with 70 femora dating to the pre-Roman Iron Age from the well-known Iron Age hillfort of Danebury, Hampshire, and from three cemeteries in East Yorkshire. Extensive efforts were directed at the minimization of sediment and soil contamination, the assessment of contamination from burial artefacts and a careful review of the burial context of specimens. Data for lead and 20 additional trace and major elements were obtained by magnetic sector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS), after acid dissolution of pre-cleaned bone cores. Lead isotope ratios in the bone core digests (and burial soils) were measured by multi-collector ICPMS. It was found that concentrations of lead in the Roman/Londinium-era femora were > 70-fold greater than those from pre-Roman populations. This was confirmed by femoral data obtained from the analysis of a pre-Roman burial from the early first century bc found adjacent to the Southern Cemetery. Several major and trace element metrics for diagenesis demonstrate that levels of lead in the bone are robust indicators of human exposure during life. Lead isotope data for the Roman population are consistent with previously identified widespread lead pollution. The pre-Roman populations contain lead isotopic compositions consistent with highly localized, minor sources of lead. Together, these data provide unequivocal confirmation that the Romans in Londinium were exposed to elevated lead levels. Elevated blood lead levels would have resulted, negatively affecting their health and possibly contributing to declining birth rates.     

Isotopic evidence for diet in the Middle Chulmun period: a case study from the Tongsamdong shell midden,Korea

This article presents the first isotopic investigation of human and animal bone remains from the Middle Chulmun (3500–2000 BC) period in southeastern Korea. We have obtained a single human and associated faunal stable carbon and nitrogen isotope results from the Tongsamdong site, a coastal shell midden. Despite the discovery of domesticated plants and the existence of large amounts of terrestrial mammal bones from the shell midden, the human and dogs we measured were heavily dependent on marine protein resources for their lives. Although our stable isotope results are based on a small number of individuals due to the lack of human remains at this period, isotopic evidence suggests the possibility that Tongsamdong people in the Middle Chulmun period depended largely on marine protein resources. This isotopic evidence is consistent with the archaeological evidence from the site.     

Osteophagia and dental wear in herbivores: actualistic data and archaeological evidence

The ability of herbivores to produce damage in bones and antlers has recently been described by the present authors (Cáceres et al., 2011), showing several cases of modified bones and various stages of bone modification due to osteophagic behavior by herbivores. Herbivores chew and eat bones and antlers to make up for mineral scarcity in their diet. In this paper we describe how the consumption of bone and antlers by herbivore can result in distinct differential tooth wear, breakage and the loss of some dental pieces. This damage has also been identified in fossils. These preliminary results are especially relevant in archaeological contexts, because this marked tooth wear can be mistaken for dental disease or lead to the incorrect assignment of age to the animals.