Herbivorous livestock dung: formation,taphonomy, methods for identification,and archaeological significance

Herbivore livestock dung has been identified in archaeological sites around the world. Focusing on dung from the ubiquitous Old World herbivorous domesticates – sheep, goats and cattle – this review deals with the materials found within dung that have relevance to archaeology. The natural and anthropogenic/cultural taphonomic processes that affect the preservation and identification of livestock dung, and the archaeological information that can be extracted through detailed studies of the context and content of identified livestock dung in archaeological sites is modeled and discussed.     

What goes in does not always come out: The impact of the ruminant digestive system of sheep on plant material,and its importance for the interpretation of dung-derived archaeobotanical assemblages

Abstract

On archaeological sites where livestock dung was a major fuel source, plant material that survives digestion intact may well be preserved in the remnants of dung-fuelled fires. Preserved plant remains which were derived from dung relate to the diet of animals, and thus provide a way of investigating the agro-pastoral economies of the past. In order to improve our understanding of the taphonomic processes to which plant material is exposed to during digestion, we applied archaeobotanical methods to the analysis of dung from sheep fed a known diet of cereal and wild plant material. Two clear patterns emerge from these investigations. First, cereal material (grain or chaff) survives digestion poorly and was rarely found in the dung analysed. Second, large proportions of seeds of various wild species survive digestion in an identifiable form, probably due to their small size and/or protective coating. These findings are crucial for reliable interpretation of dung-derived plant material in archaeological settings.     

Phytolith-rich layers from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages at Tel Dor (Israel): mode of formation and archaeological significance

The presence of many phytolith-rich layers in late Bronze and Iron Age deposits at Tel Dor, Israel, are indicative of specific locations where plants were concentrated. Detailed studies of six of these phytolith-rich layers and associated sediments from Tel Dor show that the phytoliths were derived mainly from wild and domestic grasses. The most common domestic grass was the cereal Triticum aestivum (bread wheat). Three of these layers have a microlaminated microstructure, associated dung spherulites and phosphate nodules; characteristics that all point to the phytolith-rich layers having formed from dung in animal enclosures. In two of the layers, the microlaminated structure is absent while dung spherulites and phosphate nodules are present, suggesting that these too originate from dung that was not deposited in an enclosure. The sixth layer is microlaminated but does not contain spherulites. We thus cannot suggest a parsimonious explanation of its observed properties. Concentrations of burnt phytoliths are present in three locations, implying that dung was either burnt in situ or the ashes from burnt dung were redeposited. The transformation of dung accumulations into phytolith-rich layers involves a loss of organic material and hence a significant reduction in sediment volume, which is clearly apparent in the stratigraphy of some of the locations examined. The volume reduction can be observed in the macrostratigraphy and has important implications with regard to macrostratigraphic interpretation. The presence of abundant phytolith-rich layers on the tell has significant implications for the concept of ‘urbanism’ during these periods.     

Re-analysis of faunal assemblages from the Haua Fteah and other late quaternary archaeological sites in Cyrenaican Libya

In preliminary reports based on approximately 5000 identified bones from the Haua Fteah, Cyrenaica, E. S. Higgs concluded that changes in the abundance of bovines versus Barbary sheep reflected climatic change from drier (=last interglaciation) to wetter (=last glaciation) and back to drier (=present interglaciation). Higgs also reported the earliest occurrence of domestic caprines in Africa, in Haua Fteah “Neolithic” layers dated to about 6800 bp. A new analysis, based on roughly 9000 identified specimens, supports the broad pattern of faunal change that Higgs found, but suggests that it reflects wetter when Higgs proposed drier and vice versa. The new analysis failed to confirm the early date for domestic caprines, mainly because of uncertainty concerning the stratigraphic provenience of key specimens. Finally, the new analysis produced some additions to the species list (most notably eland) and provided previously unavailable information on skeletal part representation and on the ages of animals at time of death. With respect to skeletal parts, smaller ungulates tend to be represented by a wider variety than larger ones, a contrast that is almost universal in Stone Age sites. With regard to age profiles, the largest and most reliable one (for Barbary sheep from the “Neolithic” layers) implies the animals were captured by driving over cliffs or into other traps. Restudy of small additional samples from the Cyrenaican sites of Hagfet et Tera, Hagfet ed Dabba, and Sidi el Hajj Creiem fully supports taxonomic and paleoenvironmental conclusions drawn earlier by Higgs and Bate.     

Dung matters: An experimental study into the effectiveness of using dung from hay-fed livestock to reconstruct local vegetation

This paper explores the relationship between standing vegetation and dung from hay-fed cattle and sheep. In an experimental study, hay is retrieved from a known hay field, surrounded by a semi-open landscape of hedgerows, forests and heather fields. The hay is fed to cattle and sheep, after which the dung is collected and from which the botanical remains are analysed, according to archaeobotanical standards. The results from the macro-remains are compared to vegetation relevés from the hay field. The pollen analysis is compared to both the hay field and the surrounding vegetation. Results from the plant macro remains provide an excellent representation of the vegetation in the field itself on the presence/absence level. Pollen analysis reflects the regional vegetation very well and are comparable with ‘surface samples’.     

Holocene Climatic Changes and Cultural Dynamics in the Libyan Sahara

Systematic surveys and excavations were carried out during the 1990–1996 field seasons in the Tadrart Acacus and surrounding areas, shedding new light on the climatic changes and cultural dynamics which occurred during the Holocene. In this paper, the geological, geomorphological, and archaeological evidence is assembled in order to provide a preliminary synthesis on the prehistory of the area. Pendant les saisons de terrain du 1990 au 1996, des récognitions et fouilles systématiques ont été conduites dans le Tadrart Acacus et dans les zones circonvoisines; ces études ont donne des nouvelles information en ce qui concerne les changements climatiques et les dynamiques culturelles de cette région pendant l'Holocène. Dans ce papier, les évidences géologiques, géomorphologiques, et archéologiques ont été intégrées afin d'obtenir une synthèse préliminaire sur la préhistoire de la région.     

Re-examination of the Zone I Material from Tamar Hat (Algeria): Zooarchaeological and Technofunctional Analyses

New analyses of faunal and lithic remains from stratigraphic Zone I (the top 15 layers) of the Iberomaurusian site of Tamar Hat, provide new data for understanding the function of this site and various activities carried out there. The occupation of Tamar Hat Zone I occurred in a prevailing mountainous environment which especially favoured game such as Barbary sheep. Zooarchaeological study of mammal remains revealed behaviours and technical processes which are related to hunting activity and the various stages of processing and butchering these animals. In addition, a technofunctional analysis of the backed bladelets indicates impact damage typical of the kind produced on projectile points used in hunting. Strong similarities in techniques and behaviours were observed in all of the occupation phases of Zone I.     

Romano-Libyan Dryland Animal Husbandry and Landscape: Pollen and Palynofacies Analyses of Coprolites from a Farm in the Wadi el-Amud,Tripolitania

Pollen and palynofacies from sheep/goat, rodent and human coprolites of Romano-Libyan, Arab and recent age from a farmstead in the Wadi el-Amud, Tripolitania, Libya are described. There are few differences between assemblages from modern sheep/goat dung and from recent aeolian sand—both contain high percentages of desert species and significant far-travelled pollen. The Romano-Libyan and Arab samples contain high percentages of steppe taxa, suggesting significant vegetation change has occurred subsequently. Romano-Libyan sheep/goat dung samples are often dominated by single taxa, suggesting that the grazing of these animals was closely controlled or that they were stalled and fed hay, cereal waste or other crop residue. This practice seems to have contributed to the longevity of a mixed-Mediterranean agroecosystem in the predesert by preventing widespread and indiscriminate grazing and consequent landscape destabilization.     

Topographical evolution and C age dating of the construction of the Eurimji reservoir (Jecheon,Korea)

The Eurimji site in Jecheon City, Chungcheong Province holds major importance for Korean cultural heritage because it is assumed to be the oldest man-made reservoir for rice field irrigation in Korea. A multiproxy study provides the first scientific dating of the levee construction. The authors retrieved two sediment cores from the levee (core ER-1, 18.00 m long) and the reservoir bottom (core ER-3-1, 6.98 m long). Several plant fragment layers were observed between layers of dark gray clay–silt sediment in unit 2 of both cores. The spacing and thickness of these plant layers was relatively uniform (from 50 to 90 cm, and 5 to 6 cm, respectively). These features are interpreted to represent part of a man-made sedimentary sequence created using the consolidation-settlement drain method (tamped-earth or rammed-earth method) commonly used for dam or fortress construction in ancient times, as the features are not characteristic of natural river sedimentary processes. In this alternating sequence, bulk carbon from the sediment yielded AMS ¹⁴C dates of 2000–1400 ¹⁴C yr BP, and the plant materials yielded dates of 1300–1200 ¹⁴C yr BP. If workers at that time used two different materials such as available plant materials and clays for levee construction, the plant material is preferred for ¹⁴C age dating. This is because the origin of the carbon in the sediments is ambiguous, but the source of the plant materials has been confidently determined to be equivalent to the time of the levee construction. Therefore, the levee was constructed between 1200 and 1100 ¹⁴C yr BP (AD 800–900), which is later than previously thought (i.e., AD 300 or AD 550). The results of our study also indicate that wetlands existed in the area before the construction of the Eurimji levee.     

Husbandry practices and livestock dung at the Numidian site of Althiburos (el Médéina,Kef Governorate,northern Tunisia): the phytolith and spherulite evidence

Recent excavations at Althiburos, northern Tunisia, have shown the existence of permanent pre-roman occupations in the central area of the urban settlement. Significantly, the site has been found to contain one of the most complete Numidian sequences, spanning from the Early Numidian (at least from the 10th–9th century BC) to its final stage. Research at the site addresses questions related to the identification of settlement patterns at this time.The combined study of phytoliths and spherulites recovered from well defined archeological contexts at the site have provided new data for identifying husbandry activities carried out by the ancient Numidian populations. The results show that there is abundant evidence for both cooking and processing cereals, primarily from common or bread wheat (Triticum aestivum). Also significantly, was the abundance of faecal spherulites in certain areas of the site, indicative of dung accumulation. The correlation between large amounts of spherulites and rich phytolith sediments in specific contexts, suggested that grasses were brought to the site or consumed offsite and deposited onsite as livestock dung or dung-products. The identification of dung accumulations in the site raises questions about the diversity of economic practices developed by Protohistoric communities in northern Africa. Future research questions regarding such dung rich layers will also be examined.     

Holocene Deposits of Saharan Rock Shelters: The Case of Takarkori and Other Sites from the Tadrart Acacus Mountains (Southwest Libya)

The excavation at Takarkori rock shelter is part of a long-term study of Holocene cultural dynamics in southwest Libya begun in the early 1990s. With a rich Holocene occupation, the area is one of the key spots for reconstruction of human occupation of the last 10,000 years. In this region, similar to the case in the rest of the Sahara, most of the data come from surface investigations at open-air sites, while excavated caves and rock shelters provide just a few. Although less exposed than open-air sites, Holocene archaeological deposits in Saharan caves and rock shelters are characterized by a fairly dynamic nature. Loose sediments, coupled with variability of human occupations and magnitude of natural agents, determine multiple alterations to the archaeological deposits in sheltered sites. In this paper, we present the nature and meaning of the archaeological deposits at Takarkori rock shelter, where a relatively large area has been recently excavated, showing a stratigraphic sequence extending from c. 9,000 to 4,200 BP, unevenly represented by several occupation pulses. In order to sharpen understanding of the development of human occupation at this site, specific procedures for the study and recording of the archaeological deposit have been developed, along with a program of extensive radiocarbon dating. Data from the Takarkori sequence ultimately will be integrated with available published stratigraphies from the Acacus Mountains, with the aim of reviewing the results from past excavations.     

ARCHAEOLOGICAL VOLCANIC GLASS FROM THE SITE OF ROCCHICELLA (SICILY,ITALY)*

The site of Rocchicella, near Catania, in eastern Sicily, has yielded important archaeological evidence from prehistoric times to the Middle Ages. Extensive archaeological investigations of cultural layers dating from the Palaeo‐Mesolithic to the Copper Age have recently been undertaken, and volcanic glass, mainly obsidian, has been collected in the course of excavation. To determine the provenance of this volcanic glass, a non‐destructive elemental analysis was carried out to measure the concentration of characteristic trace elements. The analysis was carried out using a new XRF spectrometer equipped with a beam stability controller and a quantitative method developed at the LANDIS laboratory of the INFN–CNR Institutes of Catania. In addition to the obsidian, it was demonstrated for the first time that a local vitreous material similar to obsidian, but displaying a completely different composition, was used during all the investigated periods. This material was identified as a basaltic glass, characterized by a superficial product of devitrification called palagonite. Analysis of the obsidians has led to the identification of the island of Lipari as the provenance source. High‐ and low‐power microscopic use‐wear analysis on obsidian and basaltic glass artefacts indicated that soft wood and plant matter might have been processed at the site.     

Identifying Threshing Floors in the Archaeological Record: A Test Case at Iron Age Tel Megiddo,Israel

Abstract

The identification of activity areas in archaeological sites is an important part of archaeological research contributing to the reconstruction of past ways of life. The threshing floor is an activity area that relates to subsistence practices in agricultural societies, yet identifying threshing floors in the archaeological record is difficult. We present a geoarchaeological study conducted at an Iron Age layered feature unearthed in 1998 at Tel Megiddo, Israel, in which we tested a previous assumption that it represents the remains of a threshing floor. Using micromorphology, mineralogy, elemental analysis, phytoliths, and dung spherulites, we show that the materials comprising the bulk of the layers in the Megiddo feature include large amounts of wood ash and the inorganic remains of livestock dung. Based on these results, coupled with ethnographic data on threshing floors and observations on the macroscopic traits of the feature under consideration, we conclude that the layered feature at Megiddo does not represent a threshing floor but a single-household trash heap. We suggest that the interpretation of similar features at other archaeological sites as threshing floors be reevaluated.     

Archaeobotanical inference of Bronze Age land use and land cover in the eastern Mediterranean

Charcoal and charred seeds at five Bronze Age archaeological sites discern ancient land use in the eastern Mediterranean. Seed frequencies of orchard crops, annual cereals and pulses, and wild or weedy plants are used to characterize plant utilization at different archaeological sites on the island of Cyprus, in the Rift Valley of Jordan, and in the Jabbul Plain and along the upper Euphrates River valley in Syria. Seed to charcoal ratios provide proxies to determine the relative usage of dung versus wood for fuel across the ancient Mediterranean landscape. Greater charcoal and lower charred seed values are interpreted to represent a wooded environment, while higher amounts of charred seeds and minimal wood charcoal suggest a much great use of dung as a fuel source. Interestingly, Politiko-Troullia (Cyprus, Cypriot archaeological sites are, by convention, named for the nearest modern village (Politiko), followed by an italicized toponym (Troullia) referring to the plot of land that incorporates the site) has the lowest seed to charcoal ratio, suggesting its residents primarily burned wood and that the landscape surrounding Troullia remained relatively wooded during the Bronze Age. In contrast, villagers at Tell el-Hayyat (Jordan) utilized a mixture of wood and dung, in contrast to Tell Abu en-Ni’aj (Jordan), and especially Umm el-Marra and Tell es-Sweyhat (Syria), where inhabitants relied solely on dung fuel. Comparative analysis and interpretation of seed and charcoal evidence thus illustrates the variety of fuel use strategies necessitated by the dynamic and diverse Bronze Age landscapes of the Eastern Mediterranean.     

Faecal biomarker and archaeobotanical analyses of sediments from a public latrine shed new light on ruralisation in Sagalassos, Turkey

A public latrine in the ‘Imperial Baths’ of Sagalassos was transformed into a dump site in the early Byzantine period. Several layers of urban waste, including ceramics, bones, glass and perhaps excrements were deposited on the floor. Faecal biomarker analyses and archaeobotanical analyses were conducted to reconstruct the history of the room. 5β-stanols of human origin, such as coprostanol, were found in the sewage channels together with mineralised plant remains, indicating a human faecal context. The botanical remains are furthermore representative of the Roman diet of the Sagalassians. Soil layers, deposited on top of the latrine floor and dating to the early Byzantine period, contained herbivore derived 5β-stanols, such as 5β-stigmastanol and epi-5β-stigmastanol. Additionally, a clear predominance of epi-5β-stanols over 5β-stanols showed that the animal dung has been subject to composting. In this period, the former latrine was clearly used as a manure production site which is further confirmed by stratigraphic evidence of large amounts of urban waste artefacts, which were commonly collected together with manure before application on the fields. The results of the present study support the theory that off-site potsherd scattering can be used as a proxy for manuring events. Additionally, the data show key evidence for vertical migration of 5β-stanols and presumably also for the leaching of bile acids.     

A Turke turn’d Quaker: conversion from Islam to radical dissent in early modern England

The study of the relationship between the anglophone and Islamic worlds in the seventeenth century has been the subject of increasing interest in recent years, and much attention has been given to the cultural anxiety surrounding “Turning Turke”, conversion from Christianity to Islam, especially by English captives on the Barbary coast. Conversion in the other direction has attracted far less scrutiny, not least because it appears to have been far less common. Conversion from Islam to any form of radical dissent has attracted no scholarship whatsoever, probably because it has been assumed to be non-existent. However, the case of Bartholomew Cole provides evidence that such conversions did take place, and examining the life of this “Turke turn’d Quaker” provides an insight into the dynamics of cross-cultural conversion of an exceptional kind.     

A meal on the hoof or wealth in the kraal? Stable isotopes at Kgaswe and Taukome in eastern Botswana

Iron Age sites associated with the Toutswe tradition in Eastern Botswana date between CE 700–1300 and share a variety of settlement patterns, economic features and material culture. The presence of domestic fauna, settlement structures and concentrations of vitrified dung provide archaeological evidence for herding economies. However, due to factors of preservation and past retrieval techniques, evidence for plant remains is still somewhat limited for the Toutswe sites in Botswana. Additionally, archaeological remains such as flora, fauna and material culture often provide only indirect evidence for their contributions to diet. This study provides new evidence for the diet of individuals from the Toutswe tradition. Given the large numbers of animal remains and residues at Toutswe sites, the expectation is that animal domesticates were also an integral part of the diet. Stable isotopic analysis of human remains indicates that even though domestic cattle and sheep occur in great abundance at Toutswe sites, their contribution to the diet may be minimal. The main source of protein for individuals at Kgaswe and Taukome comes from C4 plants such as sorghum and millet and to a lesser extent, animal products. The practice of maintaining large domestic herds for economic and social reasons rather than for primary subsistence in southern Africa today may have its roots in the Iron Age populations of the region. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Archaeology and in situ Preservation in Canton Thurgau,Switzerland

Canton Thurgau (approximately 1000 km²) is situated in the north-east of Switzerland. Its diverse landscape is notable for its hills, the Thur Valley, and Lake Constance. The Archaeology Department of Canton Thurgau is responsible for its archaeology. The archaeological map is quite complete and has over one thousand sites, ranging from the Palaeolithic to post-medieval periods. Particularly remarkable are the prehistoric lakeside dwellings (among them, four UNESCO World Heritage Sites) and the Roman sites, some of which have extraordinarily good conditions for preservation. The vicus Tasgetium (Eschenz) has produced one of the largest collections of Roman wooden objects and features found anywhere in the world. The Archaeology Department of Canton Thurgau conducts field surveys, excavations and scientific research. Its collections and archive are also of great importance. A major goal is to preserve the numerous sites of the canton in situ. In sensitive shore areas, where erosion (wave action, shipping etc.) threatens the exposed prehistoric cultural layers of the pile dwellings, measures are being taken to cover the areas and keep destruction at bay. These interventions are accompanied by monitoring. But numerous Roman and medieval ruins have also been restored according to the latest standards and thus prevented from gradual destruction. Thanks to zoning plans and a close working relationship with the local authorities, timely intervention can take place when sites are threatened. The results of the archaeological research are conveyed to the public and professional circles through the Museum for Archaeology and by way of popular and subject-specific publications.     

Species identification of archaeological dung remains: A critical review of potential methods

Abstract

Dung, macroscopically recognisable as such or not, can more commonly be found in archaeological contexts than is perhaps realised. Up to now, identification of dung to the species which produced it is usually either tenuous, or is not possible. However, species identification can be very informative and is necessary before any further studies can be conducted on the dung, for example on health and hygiene in the past and palaeoecology. This study presents a review of potential methods by which species identifications of archaeological dung can be undertaken. Criteria for identification can be divided into three broad categories: morphometric features of the dung; the content of dung and contextual evidence. Overall, the chances of a precise identification are high; however, a combination of different criteria and techniques will often be necessary to establish a secure identification. Moreover, preservation issues may exclude the application of some criteria while several criteria require more research and the expansion of reference collections of recent material. The overall aim is to move towards standardised methods for species identification of archaeological dung.     

IS THE MACROSCOPIC CLASSIFICATION OF FLINT USEFUL? A PETROARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF FLINT RAW MATERIALS FROM THE IBERIAN NEOLITHIC MINE OF CASA MONTERO*

Casa Montero is a mining complex located outside Madrid (Spain), dated from the Early Neolithic (c. 5400–5000 cal bc ). An area of some 4 ha has been investigated and some 4000 shafts recorded, of which 324 have been excavated. The characterization of its raw flint materials and the establishment of its diagnostic features are indispensable in the reconstruction of the distribution of the mine's products beyond the immediate site. This work reports the geological study of the mine's Miocene flint layers and their petrological characterization. Archaeological samples from the mine's shafts were classified according to macroscopic features and petrological characteristics.