The Provenance of Red Figure Vases From Locri Epizephiri (Southern Italy): New Evidence by Chemical Analysis

Thirty‐nine samples of red figure pottery found at Locri Epizephiri were analysed for 18 chemical elements by inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy. The finds, dated from the end of the sixth to the fourth century bc , were assigned to Attic, Sicilian and Locrian workshops due to their style of execution. Prior to facing the archaeological questions, possible biases on sample classification due to variable firing conditions, or to alteration during burial, were investigated: the results supported the opportunity of a refiring pre‐treatment. Multivariate statistical treatment of the analytical data confirms the separation between Attic and non‐Attic samples; comparison with the composition of black gloss pottery suggests that all the non‐Attic red figure vases could be the output of Locrian workshops.     

INVESTIGATION ON ROMAN LEAD GLAZE FROM CANOSA: RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES*

Five sherds of green glazed pottery excavated at Canosa (Apulia) in Italy have been analysed by scanning electron microscopy. The aim of the investigation was to determine the chemical composition of the glazes and thus obtain information on the methods used in their production. The glazes were all of the high‐lead type, coloured green by the addition of copper. Intermediate layers, observed at the interface between the glaze and body and giving the appearance of an applied white slip, were the result of the crystallization of lead feldspar from the molten glaze. Non‐calcareous clays were used in the production of the pottery bodies. Concentration profiles from the glaze exterior to the body suggested that the glazes were produced by applying a suspension consisting of lead oxide plus silica to the bodies. On the basis of the glaze and body compositions, it is suggested that the Canosa glazed pottery was produced locally.     

THE ALPS—A BARRIER OR A PASSAGE FOR CERAMIC TRADE?*

The Alps as a barrier : ceramic remnants of the so‐called Laugen‐Melaun culture (c. 11th to c. sixth centuries bc ) can be found in the northern Italy (Trentino/Alto Adige)—eastern Switzerland—Liechtenstein and western Austria region. A petrographic study of 454 sherds from this area covering a time span of 500 years reveals the following. (1) The pottery from the Trentino/Alto Adige contains a predominantly volcanic temper, which can be linked to the volcanic rocks of the Bolzano area—in other words, to the core region of this culture. This material is therefore of a local/regional production. (2) These ceramics were imported from the Bolzano region to southeastern Switzerland (the Inn Valley) and the amount of imported pottery decreases markedly from the 11th century bc (approximately 70% imported) to the seventh to sixth centuries bc (approximately 10% imported). (3) No imported pottery can be detected north of the Alpine crest in Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Austria, and in this region serpentinite temper was preferred by ancient potters. These results demonstrate that long‐lasting contacts and ceramic trade existed between the populations of the Inn Valley and the Trentino/Alto Adige. Such contacts could have been motivated by intermarriages between the two populations and/or economic exchange. The potters north of the Alpine ridge adopted the Laugen‐Melaun style and produced such pottery locally. The use of serpentinite temper is puzzling and not related to any technological advantage. (Could it be recycled material? Or does it have any sociocultural specificity?) The Alps as a passage : 59 fragments of a black gloss ware, the so‐called Campana, unearthed at 11 Late Latene sites (second to first centuries bc ) in Switzerland and neighbouring Germany were analysed chemically by X‐ray fluorescence. The results revealed: (1) that all of them were produced either in Italy or Lyon and then exported to the north; (2) that two principal south–north exchange routes existed, (a) fluviatile, along the Rhône–Rhine corridor and (b) trans‐Alpine, using the Alpine passes, such as the Simplon and the Grand St Bernard.     

PETROGRAPHIC AND GEOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE FOR LONG‐STANDING SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIALS IN NEOLITHIC POTTERY (MENDANDIA SITE,SPAIN)

Pottery from the Neolithic Mendandia site has been studied. The radiocarbon dating of the site corresponds to a range of dates from 7488–7546 cal bc to 5283–5437 cal bc : the first occurrence of pottery is dated at 5968–6040 cal bc for the lower level III, and up to 5386–5560 cal bc for level II. The antiquity of the potsherds places them within the oldest pottery production sequences in the Iberian Peninsula, which adds to the interest of this study. Ten potsherds from level II and five from level III are analysed for their petrographic and chemical characterization. The petrographic data show two different methods of raw materials manufacture—intentionally tempered pottery (ITP), using calcite and/or limestone and grog, and naturally or non‐intentionally tempered pottery (NTP). According to the matrix paste features, on the basis of the amount, shape, and average or size range of the mineral inclusions, clayed (type A) and sandy (type B) paste types were established and related to two different source areas. The chemical features also indicate two raw material sources and are in agreement with the petrographic paste types. The absence of significant chemical and mineralogical differences between the pottery from levels II and III suggests two contrasting areas for raw materials supply that lasted for at least 600 years.     

THE SUPPLY OF CAMPANIAN‐MADE SIGILLATA TO THE CITY OF POMPEII

Pompeii is an important temporal reference in the study of Roman ceramics, yet until now the origins of red slip tableware or sigillata found in the city have largely been classified by visual evaluations of the pottery. This investigation employs petrographic and elemental analyses to establish the provenance of sigillata found in two pre–ad 79 contexts of Pompeii. In contrast to previous studies, the results suggest that pottery workshops in the vicinity of Somma‐Vesuvius played a vital role in the supply of sigillata to the city.     

MINERO‐PETROGRAPHIC STUDY OF COOKING WARE AND POMPEIAN RED WARE (ROSSO POMPEIANO) FROM CUMA (SOUTHERN ITALY)

Excavations carried out in Cuma by the Centre Jean Bérard archaeologists have uncovered a large quantity of pottery. This study is focused on cooking ware and on internal red‐slip cookware, also known as Pompeian Red Ware (Rosso Pompeiano), dated from the first century bc to the first century ad . A comparison with the minero‐petrographic composition of beach sands collected along the Bay of Naples coastline highlights the provenance of the temper from the Somma‐Vesuvius area, marked by leucite‐bearing scoriae and garnet. Petrochemical analyses allow us to distinguish two main groups of pottery characterized by different technological options based on the amount of temper and on the type of clay. X‐ray diffraction and scanning electron microscope data demonstrate improved accuracy in the production of Rosso Pompeiano, especially with regard to firing control, which was in a prevailing oxidizing atmosphere and in a narrow thermal range, between about 800 and 900°C.     

Technological features of Apulian red figured pottery

Apulian red figured pottery samples, dating back to the 5th and 4th centuries BC, from the archaeological site of Monte Sannace (Gioia del Colle, Bari, Italy) have been characterized from the physical–chemical, mineralogical and morphological points of view. Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and atomic spectroscopy investigations have been carried out on the ceramic body, red decorated area and black gloss of the fragments, with the aim of outlining the technological features and of defining the nature of coatings and decorations. All 5th century fragments show the same features: fine texture of the ceramic body, red figures saved from the ceramic paste and black gloss painted directly on the ceramic body. The statistical treatment of compositional data of ceramic bodies excludes the local production of these objects. As regards the 4th century fragments, some show similar features to the 5th century ones; however others are characterized by the coarse texture of their ceramic body and an intermediate red layer of finer clay between the black gloss and the ceramic body. The analytical results make it possible to distinguish two different production technologies of red figured Apulian vases in Monte Sannace during the 4th century BC. Certain vases were produced using the “classic” Attic technology and others with a different technique, not previously known, which involved the application of a red engobe layer on the clay paste, before the black gloss painting.     

Provenance of Red‐Figure Pottery of the Classical Period Excavated at Olympia

Neutron activation analysis (NAA) has been applied to a set of red‐figure pottery fragments excavated in Olympia, in Elis: (a) to determine the provenance of these vases, since this is difficult by archaeological means, and the vessels might be local Elean or Attic, Corinthian or Italian products; and (b) to determine the characteristic elemental pattern of the clay paste prepared by the potters of this Elean region. Included for comparison are several Corinthian sherds excavated in Kyme, Italy, that are archaeologically classified as exports from Corinthia to Italy, and fragments of local Italian Corinthian imitations. The majority of the red‐figure vases were made locally in the north‐western Peloponnese and show the elemental pattern termed OlyA, which is represented in many vases and clay samples from this region that were known previously. It is not very different from the well‐known pattern of the north‐eastern Peloponnese (Argolid/Corinth) termed MYBE (Mycenae/Berbati), but can be separated by its lower Cs, Rb and K concentrations, as proven by many sherds from the Argolid and wasters from Berbati. Only a few red‐figure vessels are imports from Attica, but none come from Italy.     

Initial results from the programme of petrographic analysis of Iron Age pottery from the United Arab Emirates

This article presents the results of petrographic analyses of a collection of sixty potsherds from various sites of the Iron Age period in south‐eastern Arabia. Several macroscopic groups were identified during previous research. The fine red painted ware and the sandy buff ware appear to be homogeneous in composition and might represent two groups of production. Compositionally, fine red painted ware recalls Bronze Age pottery groups in Oman. Sandy buff ware could have been produced in the oasis of Al Ain, in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. Both groups are represented at several sites, which indicates regional exchange. One sherd from Rumeilah could be related to Mesopotamian ceramics and is probably a Mesopotamian import.     

THE COLOURED TESSERAE DECORATING THE VAULTS OF THE FARAGOLA BALNEUM (ASCOLI SATRIANO,FOGGIA, SOUTHERN ITALY)

Twenty‐six tesserae (red, orange, yellow, light amber, green, blue and white) from the balneum of the villa at Faragola (Ascoli Satriano, Foggia) have been examined by colorimetry, ICP–MS, ICP–OES and SEM–EDS. Different types of calcareous sands have been used as the source of silica (network former), also providing the stabilizing agent. A natron‐type soda source served as the network modifier; however, the use of a sodium‐rich plant ash and the recycling process have been hypothesized for the production of two tesserae (FT 1 red and FT 3 orange). The colouring and opacifying agents were Cu oxide (cuprite, orange), metallic copper (red), Pb antimonates (yellow), Ca antimonates (white), a mixture of copper (Cu²⁺) and Pb antimonates (green), a mixture of cobalt (Co²⁺) or copper (Cu²⁺) and Ca antimonates (blue). The light amber tesserae should owe their colour to iron (Fe³⁺) alone or associated with sulphide (S^2?) and Ca antimonates. It is likely that the Faragola tesserae were locally produced in a secondary glass workshop.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF CORAL RED SLIPS ON GREEK ATTIC POTTERY*

Samples of red and black gloss from Greek Attic pottery of the late sixth to fifth centuries bc were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM and FIB/STEM). The focus of the study was the chemical and microstructural characterization of the red gloss that was first produced during this period. Two groupings of red gloss were revealed. One red was found to be compositionally similar to the black glosses (labelled ‘LCM coral red’). The other red showed more significant chemical differences, such as higher calcium and magnesium, in comparison to the black (labelled ‘HCM coral red’). The existence of two chemically distinct reds—otherwise identical in colour and texture—suggests that there was more than one source of clay available to the Attic potters for producing red.     

NEUTRON ACTIVATION PATTERNING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AT THE NATIONAL CENTER FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ‘DEMOKRITOS’: THE CASE OF BLACK‐ON‐RED NEOLITHIC POTTERY FROM MACEDONIA,GREECE

A short history of the application of NAA in the characterization of archaeological materials at the National Center for Scientific Research ‘Demokritos’, Athens, is presented. NAA was first applied in archaeology in 1974 at the Radioanalytical Laboratory, and since 1989 has been one of the primary analytical techniques of the ‘Demokritos’ archaeometry programme. A case study is also presented, concerning chemical patterning of the black‐on‐red Neolithic pottery class from Macedonia. Four chemical groups were identified, each corresponding to a different area of production. It is shown that this standardized concept of pottery technology and style was spread out within at least eastern Macedonia.     

A Study Of The Firing Technique Of Pottery From Kaman‐Kalehöyük,Turkey, by Synchrotron Radiation‐Induced Fluorescence X‐Ray Absorption Near‐Edge Structure (Xanes) Analysis*

Fe K‐XANES spectra of a series of pottery sherds excavated from the archaeological site of Kaman‐Kalehöyük, Turkey, were measured to reveal the firing technique of the pottery. The analysis disclosed relationships among the chemical form of the iron, the firing conditions and the colour of the pottery. The pottery referred to as ‘Grey Ware’ found at this site was classified into two groups according to the chemical form of the iron. Also, it was revealed that the Iron Age pottery referred to as ‘Cream Ware’ was produced first under reducing conditions, and then fired under oxidizing conditions.     

THE ORIGIN OF BLACK‐FIGURE GREEK CERAMICS FOUND IN NAUCRATIS (NILE DELTA)*

At the site of the Greek trading port of Naucratis, located on the Canopic mouth of the Nile inland from Alexandria, Flinders Petrie and later archaeologists encountered sherds of Classical Greek black‐figure pottery. We have characterized the pastes of 14 of these specimens, drawn from the collections of the British Museum and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, by neutron activation analysis and numerical taxonomy. The ceramics agree in composition with a reference group centred on Athens. We also investigated a small number of additional black‐figure sherds from other sites. One specimen, from Ruvo di Puglia (Italy), actually originated in or near Marseilles. There was no evidence for local manufacture of black‐figure pottery at Naucratis.     

PIGMENT IDENTIFICATION IN GREEK POTTERY BY RAMAN MICROSPECTROSCOPY*

Raman microspectroscopy (RMS) is now established as a key technique for the identification of pigments of archaeological pottery that permits the in situ study of art objects by a non‐destructive procedure. The information obtained represents a great aid to restoration and conservation techniques. In this work, the chemical nature of the red, black and white pigments of five samples of Greek pottery from the end of the fifth century and the first half of the fourth century bc , exhumed from the Iberian necropolis of Cabezo Lucero (Guardamar del Segura, Alicante, Spain), has been identified. The black and the red pigments are found to be magnetite (Fe₃O₄) and hematite (α‐Fe₂O₃), respectively. The white pigment is found, for the first time, to be composed of alumina (α‐Al₂O₃ and γ‐Al₂O₃) probably yielded by the thermal decomposition of Greek bauxite.     

The production and technology of glazed ceramics from the middle ages,found in the saepinum territory (Italy): a multimethodic approach*

A collection of ceramics from the Middle Ages found in Altilia and Terravecchia (the Saepinum area, Campobasso, Italy) were characterized by using different mineralogical analyses to investigate their provenance and production techniques. The body ceramic was investigated using Rietveld phase analysis of X‐ray powder diffraction patterns, X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy. The chemical compositions of the coatings were measured by scanning electron microscopy and their mineralogical compositions were determined using a particular technique of X‐ray small‐angle scattering (SAS) optimized for studies of thin films. Moreover, the material used for decoration was studied using micro‐Raman spectroscopy. The archaeometric results confirmed the distinction into two different ceramic classes, already individuated from archaeological analysis: the Altilia objects belong to the protomajolica class, whereas the objects from Terravecchia are RMR (ramina‐manganese‐red) ceramics. A comparison between the chemical and mineralogical compositions of good‐quality ceramic objects and those of waste products indicated local production of the ceramics. A sharp distinction was found in the chemical composition of the coatings: the Altilia products have tin‐opacified lead glazes, while the Terravecchia ones have transparent high‐lead glazes. Among the Altilia products, the unsuccessful process that produced a large quantity of discarded materials was attributed to the high lead content of the glazes. In fact, the principal advantage of the high lead content was to make the preparation and application of the glaze suspension easier, but the risk of reduction of lead oxide to metallic lead was greatly increased. Using micro‐Raman spectroscopy, the following minerals were identified as pigments: pyrolusite for the dark colour, malachite for green, lepidocrocite for yellow and hematite for red.     

The Evolution of Pottery Production During The Late Neolithic Period at Sialk On The Kashan Plain,Central Plateau of Iran

The prehistoric sherds recovered from the North Mound of Tepe Sialk were investigated using XRF, XRD and SEM/EDX analyses. These studies showed the occurrence of a gradual evolution in pottery‐making from the Sialk I to Sialk II periods, eventually leading to the production of bulk red pottery at the final phase of Sialk II. The relative similarity of compositions, homogeneous microstructures and the presence of high‐temperature phases demonstrated a high degree of specialization in the selection of raw materials and control of the firing temperature and atmosphere among the potters of Sialk in the sixth millennium bc , peaking at the final phase of Sialk II.     

ARCHAEOMETRIC ANALYSES ON ‘CORINTHIAN B’ TRANSPORT AMPHORAE FOUND AT GELA (SICILY,ITALY)*

The aim of this work is to throw light on the archaic production of ‘Corinthian B’ amphorae, which are widely diffused in the Western Mediterranean basin and are also present in Greece, but whose geographical provenance is still under discussion. We analysed a group of 37 samples belonging to different ceramic classes dated to the sixth and fifth centuries bc . In particular, there were 19 sherds of trade amphorae of the so‐called archaic ‘Corinthian B’ type, from archaeological excavations in Gela (Sicily, Italy). As a comparison, we also investigated 18 samples of tiles and local coarse pottery from Sibari (Calabria, Italy). The samples were analysed using different techniques, such as optical analysis with a polarized‐light microscope (OM), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform–infrared absorption (FT–IR) and inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP–OES). The combination of these complementary analytical methods allowed us to characterize the samples, determine their firing temperatures and identify the probable provenance. The study of thin sections of sherds by OM allowed us to divide the investigated amphorae into two main groups: the first was characterized by a composition that suggested a Western provenance, in particular from the Calabrian–Peloritan region; the second one was very similar to the ‘Corinthian B’ amphorae that come from Corinth and have been classified as ‘fabric class 1’ by Whitbread (1995 ). The XRD and FT–IR results permitted us to determine the mineral composition of the findings and to estimate their firing temperature. The ICP–OES technique was particularly useful in identifying the production centres. In fact, in the studied pottery, this analysis revealed Ni and Cr values that were noticeably different between Greek and southern Italian production.     

Portuguese Blue‐on‐Blue 16th–17th Century Pottery

Blue‐on‐blue (‘berettino’) sherds have appeared in numerous production and consumption archaeological excavations in Lisbon and other archaeological sites in Portugal (dated from the mid‐16th century to the beginning of the 17th century). The abundance of this interesting faience led us to compare it with similar pottery from other well‐known production centres in Italy, namely Liguria (Savona and Albisola), Spain (the Triana kilns) and the Low Countries. Differences in the diffraction patterns of the sherds' pastes from the four countries were observed. In most samples, cobalt blue silicate (cobalt olivine) was identified in the dark blue or light blue glazes through the use of micro‐Raman spectroscopy and diffuse reflectance spectra. A remarkable difference in the calcite contents of the Lisbon and Seville pottery sherds was observed, in accordance with previous observations of high calcite contents of Seville ceramics. A comparison was also made for all of the blue‐on‐blue sherds studied here with many other 16th–17th century sherds from Lisbon using bivariate plots of K/Si versus Ca/Si. Lisbon and Seville pottery behave very differently, whereas sherds from Italy and the Low Countries occupy intermediate positions.     

THE DISCOVERY OF ANOMALOUSLY HIGH SILVER ABUNDANCES IN POTTERY FROM EARLY ROMAN EXCAVATION CONTEXTS IN JERUSALEM*

This is the first study on the differential distribution and concentrations of silver in ceramics recovered from archaeological excavations. The chemical compositions of 1174 pottery vessels from 38 Roman‐period sites in Israel have been determined. Unusually high and variable abundances of silver were discovered in pottery samples of all vessel types and chemical compositions from four distinct archaeological contexts dating to late first century bce to 70 ce Jerusalem. The large majority of the Jerusalem vessels could be distinguished by their silver abundances from all analysed pottery pieces recovered at rural sites outside Jerusalem, even when the pottery types and chemical compositions, except for silver, of pottery found within and outside Jerusalem were indistinguishable. The evidence is suggestive of a human origin for the high and variable silver abundances, and dispersion of the silver by aqueous transport. The differential silver concentrations found in excavated pottery from Jerusalem and other urban and rural sites suggest that attention to the distribution of silver in pottery from excavated contexts may be helpful for evaluating the nature and function of archaeological remains and patterns of urban contamination.