Sedimentological and archaeological fabrics in Palaeolithic levels of the South-Eastern Pyrenees: Cova Gran and Roca dels Bous Sites (Lleida, Spain)

The comparative study of sedimentary fabrics in relation to archaeological fabrics in various levels of the sites of Cova Gran de Santa Linya (Middle and Early Upper Palaeolithic) and the Roca dels Bous (Middle Palaeolithic) has made it possible to analyse the formation dynamics of the deposits and determine the extent of disturbance of the archaeological levels by natural processes. To achieve this, diagrams and two- and three-dimensional indices were calculated from the azimuth and dip angle of natural clasts and artefacts. The results indicate that the sedimentary levels were formed mainly by planar fabric shape gravitational processes (low depositional angles), which differ notably from the archaeological fabrics they contain, characterised by a greater degree of isotropy. This difference in the fabrics would reflect human activity and indicates that the archaeological levels both in Cova Gran and Roca dels Bous have not been subject to significant natural modifications, and are preserved in situ.     

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AMBERS FROM NORTHERN ITALY: AN FTIR–DRIFT STUDY OF PROVENANCE BY COMPARISON WITH THE GEOLOGICAL AMBER DATABASE*

European geological ambers of five different localities and types, and Italian geological ambers from seven different deposits have been studied with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and diffuse‐reflectance infrared Fourier transform (DRIFT). Ambers from several localities have been characterized for the first time. The research aims to create a database of European ambers, containing both FTIR and DRIFT data. The FTIR spectra are easily comparable with the data commonly available in the literature, whereas DRIFT analyses are shown to be more useful to characterize the archaeological finds. The provenance of several archaeological ambers from northern and southern Italy, dating from the Middle Bronze Age to the Iron Age, is assessed on the basis of the developed database. Of the 35 analysed archaeological objects, all but five are composed of Baltic succinite amber.     

Potential Discrimination of Belgian Black Marbles Using Petrography,Magnetic Susceptibility and Geochemistry

Five varieties of Belgian black marbles are investigated in order to discriminate them. Their age ranges from Frasnian (Golzinne) to Visean (Dinant, Theux, Basècle, Lives). Three methods were used: petrography, magnetic susceptibility and geochemistry of major elements and Rare Earth Elements (REE). The petrographic analyze reveals 16 microfacies reflecting very quiet environments, sporadically perturbed by more energetic phenomena like turbidites or storms. These microfacies are integrated in two depositional models: a quiet offshore setting, below or close to the storm wave base (Salet, Basècles) and a shallow but very restricted zone, protected from waves and currents (Lives and Golzinne). The magnetic susceptibility results show that all the black marbles are characterized by very low, even slightly negative values, except the Golzinne one which shows higher values. Geochemical data allow to discriminate between the Theux black marble (low SiO₂ content), and the Basècles samples (low Al₂O₃, K₂O and REE contents). These methods could be useful to determine/refine the origin of archaeological stones, even if all these analyses are destructive. Two archeologic samples were investigated in order to identify their possible origin.     

THE AMINOCHRONOLOGY OF MAN‐INDUCED SHELL MIDDENS IN CAVES IN NORTHERN SPAIN*

Here, we provide the first report on the ages of 54 archaeological levels in 38 caves in northern Spain by means of the aspartic acid d /l ratio measurements in Patella shells, with good results. For this purpose, we developed an age calculation algorithm that allows the numerical dating of deposits from other archaeological localities in the area and nearby regions. We conclude that the sample size—that is, the number of shells analysed within a single level—reinforces the importance of analysing numerous specimens per horizon and the understanding of the time‐averaging concept. The ultrastructure of different species of Patella shells was also studied, showing calcite in their apexes and aragonite at their margins.     

Human Palaeoecological Interactions and Owl Roosting at Tron Bon Lei,Alor Island,Eastern Indonesia

We report on tetrapod (Reptilia, Amphibia, Mammalia, Aves) vertebrates recovered during excavations at Tron Bon Lei rockshelter on the south coast of Alor Island, eastern Indonesia. These include both archaeological specimens recovered from a 1 m² test pit dating from ～21 kya cal BP to the late Holocene, and a modern eastern barn owl deposit recovered nearby. To discern between the depositional processes that accumulated the small numbers of micro- and macrovertebrate remains from the archaeological deposits, the taphonomic signature of the natural assemblage was quantified and compared to the archaeological record. The taphonomic data indicates that the tetrapod archaeofaunal remains are a combination of barn owl predation of microfauna and human predation of larger fauna. This approach provides new information on human-tetrapod interactions on Alor in Wallacea during the late Quaternary, including an apparent increase in cave site use and hunting intensity during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, sea turtle butchery and probable transport, and extinctions of previously unknown giant to large rat species.     

A palaeoenvironmental context for Terminal Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic activity in the Colne Valley: Offsite records contemporary with occupation at Three Ways Wharf,Uxbridge

Abstract

Multi-proxy analyses from floodplain deposits in the Colne Valley, southern England, have provided a palaeoenvironmental context for the immediately adjacent Terminal Upper Palaeolithic and Early Mesolithic site of Three Ways Wharf. These deposits show the transition from an open cool environment to fully developed heterogeneous floodplain vegetation during the Early Mesolithic. Several distinct phases of burning are shown to have occurred that are chronologically contemporary with the local archaeological record. The floodplain itself is shown to have supported a number of rare Urwaldrelikt insect species implying human manipulation of the floodplain at this time must have been limited or episodic. By the Late Mesolithic a reed-sedge swamp had developed across much of the floodplain, within which repeated burning of the in situ vegetation took place. This indicates deliberate land management practices utilising fire, comparable with findings from other floodplain sequences in southern Britain. With similar sedimentary sequences known to exist across the Colne Valley, often closely associated with contemporary archaeology, the potential for placing the archaeological record within a spatially explicit palaeoenvironmental context is great.     

POTENTIAL MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND FRACTIONAL CONVERSION STUDIES OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOILS AND SEDIMENTS*

Potential magnetic susceptibility (χ_MAX) and, hence, fractional conversion (χ_CONV) are shown to be critical in interpreting low‐frequency mass‐specific magnetic susceptibility (χ_LF) data. Results presented from 29 sites in the UK and one in Hungary encompass six types of investigation: Quaternary sedimentary stratigraphies, archaeological contexts, surveys of old ground surfaces, topsoil surveys of lithic scatter sites, topsoil prospection surveys and ‘natural’ topsoils. The findings highlight the wide range of χ_MAX values that may be encountered; identify factors affecting χ_MAX; demonstrate that χ_CONV provides a measure of enhancement resulting from burning; and identify environments in which χ_LF analysis is likely to be problematic.     

Magnetic detection of ship ballast deposits and anchorage sites in King Herod's Roman harbour,Caesarea Maritima,Israel

Ballast stone deposits are a common feature of sediments in ancient harbour basins but are often overlooked as a potential source of archaeological information. Recent geophysical investigations at Caesarea Maritima in Israel have discovered a thick, laterally extensive ballast layer in the area seaward of the 1st c. BC Roman harbour. The ballast deposits were identified by low-relief mounds on the seabed with elevated magnetic intensities. Jet probing and excavation of magnetic anomalies at several locations revealed a 20–60 cm thick rubble layer containing large quantities of Late Roman and Byzantine pottery, local sedimentary boulders (kurkar sandstone, limestone cobbles) and foreign igneous and metamorphic boulders (granite, schist, volcanics; ca. 50%). The foreign boulders and pottery identify the rubble layer as ballast and ships refuse jettisoned by merchant ships outside the harbour. The strong magnetic contrast between the ballast deposits and the natural seabed sediments is attributed to the high magnetic susceptibility (>10⁻³ SI) of crystalline boulders and pottery materials within the ballast rubble.     

Taphonomy,life history,and human exploitation of Rhinoceros sinensis at the Middle Pleistocene site of Panxian Dadong,Guizhou, China

Rhinoceros remains are commonly found in Chinese Pleistocene archaeological localities. This study examines the characteristics of the Rhinoceros sinensis sample from Panxian Dadong, a karst cave in the mountains of western Guizhou province, with a mammalian fauna in association with stone artefacts and human remains from the late Middle Pleistocene (MIS 6‐8). The distribution of skeletal elements shows a predominance of foot (metapodial and phalanges) and lower limb (carpals and tarsals) bones, while the dental age‐at‐death profile, constructed using dental eruption and tooth wear data, is characterised by a high frequency of prime age adult teeth. There is little taphonomic evidence for the involvement of non‐human carnivores or natural agencies in the formation of the faunal assemblage. Instead, it appears that human activities were responsible for the unexpected prevalence of prime age adults. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The bioerosion of bird bones

This study presents a synthesis of the evidence for modern archaeological, and palaeontological bioerosion of vertebrate tissue. It describes the first evidence for the bioerosion of modern, archaeological and fossil bird bones. A new form of bone bioerosion, known as Hackett tunnels, is defined. The bioerosion of vertebrate tissue by cyanobacteria and algae in modern marine and lacustrine environments is also described. Archaeological evidence indicates that the destruction of bone by bioerosion occurs in other terrestrial environments, such as cave deposits and middens. Bone from marine and lacustrine environments that appears to be macroscopically well preserved can have large amounts of microscopic fabric destruction. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Isotopic analysis of the ecology of herbivores and carnivores from the Middle Pleistocene deposits of the Sierra De Atapuerca,northern Spain

Carbon and oxygen isotope values reveal resource partitioning among the large mammal fauna from three contemporaneous Middle Pleistocene hominid-bearing localities within the Sierra de Atapuerca (northern Spain). Carbon isotope values sampled from the tooth enamel of fauna present during Atapuerca Faunal Unit 6 show that a C₃-dominated ecosystem surrounded the area where fossils were preserved during this time. For the herbivores, Fallow deer isotope values are significantly different from Red deer and horses and show that this species did not forage in open environments at this locality. Red deer and horses show similar feeding strategies with less negative carbon values implying use of more open environments for these taxa. For the carnivores, carbon isotope values for Ursus deningeri are significantly different from either lions (Panthera leo) or foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and support the contention that this species is herbivorous. Special metabolic mechanisms involved in hibernation in U. deningeri might also have influenced its isotope values. The carbon isotope values of remaining carnivores were similar and suggest that each was typically a generalist carnivore, eating a wide variety of prey items. While the isotopic results generally correspond to ecology indicated by previous techniques, this study shows that isotope analyses can provide further insights that alternate techniques do not provide. Isotope analyses can help elucidate the ancient ecology of taxa present in the Sierra de Atapuerca during the Middle Pleistocene allowing for an accurate portrayal of the setting in which humans lived.     

An Early Pleistocene Phytolith Record from Wonderwerk Cave,Northern Cape,South Africa

Grass silica short cell phytoliths were sampled from the four lowermost archaeological strata in excavation 1 at Wonderwerk Cave and offer an independent record of climatic change during an episode of Early Stone Age hominin occupation at the cave. Linked to differences in growing season temperature and the geographic distribution of C₃ and C₄ grasses in southern Africa, fossil grass phytoliths were used to trace palaeoenvironmental shifts at the site. The results suggest that Early Pleistocene environmental conditions at the cave fluctuated: between wetter and drier summer–rainfall growing conditions (C₄) towards the end of the Olduvai subchron and the beginning of the subsequent interval of reversed polarity, to mostly dry and cooler winter–rainfall growing conditions (C₃), that continued throughout the interval. It ended with a shift towards increased summer rainfall aridity at around one million years ago. The fluctuation between markedly wetter and drier C₄ conditions at the cave (NADP-me grass types vs. NAD-me grass types) does not support the premise that the expansion of C₄ grasslands was always coupled with increased aridity.     

The Middle Stone Age of West Turkana,Kenya

Abstract

Research on the origins of Homo sapiens and the development of our species’ unique behavior is focused on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) period in Africa (in comparison with the European Upper Palaeolithic). Although archaeological and paleontological fieldwork in the Turkana Basin in northwestern Kenya has contributed greatly to our understanding of human evolution in Africa, the Basin's MSA archaeological record remains poorly known. We report on a reconnaissance of MSA sites in West Turkana, Kenya, which included known archaeological/paleoanthropological localities at Eliye Springs and Kabua Waterhole (Kadokorinyang). A newly-discovered site, Nakechichok 1 (GdJh 5), preserves MSA tools stratified beneath Late Stone Age assemblages. The MSA lithic artifacts from Nakechichok 1 differ from those known from other MSA localities in nearby regions, and, they expand the known scope of MSA variability in the Turkana Basin, demonstrating that the MSA is not “missing” in this region, but just hard to find.     

Micromammal taphonomy of el-Wad Terrace,Mount Carmel,Israel: distinguishing cultural from natural depositional agents in the Late Natufian

A taphonomic analysis of micromammal remains from the Late Natufian deposits of el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel, was conducted in order to test the long-standing premise of owl deposition as the primary accumulating agent. The inferred taphonomic sequence was modeled within an actualistic (recent) comparative framework incorporating a locally derived barn owl pellet collection and an off-site control assemblage of micromammal remains from the cliff overhanging the terrace. The sequence was reconstructed based on multiple types of recorded taphonomic data, comprising skeletal modifications (breakage, digestion, weathering, gnawing, and charring) and age structure. Evidence for post-depositional processes including fluvial transport, trampling, and weathering was isolated and consequently the typical owl imprints were traced through the two actualistic and the archaeological assemblages. Based on the extent of breakage and patterning in skeletal element frequencies it was also possible to scale the preservation potential of primary data in el-Wad Terrace as a discrete site type, intermediate between true cave and open-air depositional environments. Verifying the role of owls as principal agents of accumulation of the el-Wad Terrace micromammal remains enabled the detection of two minor superimposed cultural patterns: consumption of mole rats (Spalax sp.) by the Natufians and commensalism of mice (Mus spp.).     

Site formation processes in caves: The Holocene sediments of the Haua Fteah,Cyrenaica, Libya

Caves have yielded some of the most globally important archaeological sequences, but often their interpretation has suffered from assumptions about cave sedimentary processes. Caves contain distinctive sedimentary environments: this has major implications for the understanding of contained archaeological materials. This paper describes and analyses the Holocene sediments in the Haua Fteah, a sequence regarded as essentially continuous by the original excavator. 50 years after it was first excavated, the Haua's Epipalaeolithic to post-Classical chronological range and rich finds make it still the key Holocene archaeological site in North Africa. The reassessment shows, however, that the sequence is strongly discontinuous and this has major implications for the reinterpretation of the site, as the highly-resolved archaeological record is thus likely to reflect a series of brief occupations, rather than continuous human activity. As with many caves, the sedimentary record in the Haua Fteah is an extremely sensitive indicator of environments and processes in the wider landscape. Secure understanding of sedimentary process, from analysis of the highly individual records found in caves, is essential for full understanding of their contained archaeology.     

Quantification and Visualization of In Situ Degradation at the World Heritage Site Bryggen in Bergen,Norway

Abstract

Environmental monitoring at the World Heritage Site of Bryggen in Bergen, Norway, has shown damaging settling rates caused by degradation of underlying archaeological deposits. Measurements of piezometric head, oxygen, and soil moisture content, as well as chemical analyses of water and soil samples are key elements of the environmental monitoring.

Groundwater monitoring and geochemical analyses reveal a complex and dynamic flow through the natural and anthropogenic stratigraphy. The preservation conditions within the organic archaeological deposits are strongly correlated with oxygen and soil moisture content, that are controlled by the groundwater flow conditions at the site. To quantify decay rates, it is thus essential to understand the wider hydrogeological context of the site. This paper presents recent advancements in quantifying decay rates in the saturated zone at Bryggen. The paper also shows that 3D geo-archaeological modelling can contribute to preservation management by visually combining results of geological, archaeological, geochemical, and hydrological investigations. This opens up for improved multidisciplinary understanding of preservation potential, thereby contributing to an improved protection of archaeological deposits in situ.     

Invasion of a karst aquifer by hydrothermal fluids: evidence from stable isotopic compositions of cave mineralization

Mineral deposits in the Cupp‐Coutunn/Promeszutochnaya cave system (Turkmenia, central Asia) record a phase of hydrothermal activity within a pre‐existing karstic groundwater conduit system. Hydrothermal fluids entered the caves through fault zones and deposited sulphate, sulphide and carbonate minerals under phreatic conditions. Locally, intense alteration of limestone wall rocks also occurred at this stage. Elsewhere in the region, similar faults contain economic quantities of galena and elemental sulphur mineralization. Comparisons between the Pb and S isotope compositions of minerals found in cave and ore deposits confirm the link between economic mineralization and hydrothermal activity at Cupp‐Coutunn. The predominance of sulphate mineralization in Cupp‐Coutunn implies that the fluids were more oxidized in the higher permeability zone associated with the karst aquifer. A slight increase in the δ³⁴S of sulphate minerals and a corresponding δ³⁴S decrease in sulphides suggest that partial isotopic equilibration occurred during oxidation. Carbonate minerals indicate that the hydrothermal fluid was enriched in ¹⁸O (δ¹⁸O_SMOW ～ + 10‰) relative to meteoric groundwater and seawater. Estimated values for δ¹³C_DIC (δ¹³C_PDB ～ ? 13‰) are consistent with compositions expected for dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) derived from the products of thermal decomposition of organic matter and dissolution of marine carbonate. Values derived for δ¹³C_DIC and δ¹⁸O_water indicate that the hydrothermal fluid was of basinal brine origin, generated by extensive water–rock interaction. Following the hydrothermal phase, speleothemic minerals were precipitated under vadose conditions. Speleothemic sulphates show a bimodal sulphur isotope distribution. One group has compositions similar to the hydrothermal sulphates, whilst the second group is characterized by higher δ³⁴S values. This latter group may either record the effects of microbial sulphate reduction, or reflect the introduction of sulphate‐rich groundwater generated by the dissolution of overlying evaporites. Oxygen isotope compositions show that calcite speleothems were precipitated from nonthermal groundwater of meteoric origin. Carbonate speleothems are relatively enriched in ¹³C compared to most cave deposits, but can be explained by normal speleothem‐forming processes under thin, arid‐zone soils dominated by C4 vegetation. However, the presence of sulphate speleothems, with isotopic compositions indicative of the oxidation of hydrothermal sulphide, implies that CO₂ derived by reaction of limestone with sulphuric acid (‘condensation corrosion’) contributed to the formation of ¹³C‐enriched speleothem deposits.     

Micromorphology of a Late Woodland Cave Site,East-Central Iowa

Abstract

This article discusses a micromorphological investigation conducted at Bogus Cave (13JN23), a Late Woodland occupation in Jones County, Iowa. Micromorphology–the study of undisturbed soil and sediment in thin section–was used to evaluate, and differentiate between, natural and cultural processes evidenced within the cave sediments. Twenty-two thin sections were prepared from samples collected from test units excavated in the front room of the cave, the principal site of human occupation. The cultural material was confined to a 55-cm-thick surface layer that rests on an accumulation of angular to subangular boulder-size dolostone blocks, the result of one or more episodes of pre-Holocene ceiling collapse. The thin sections revealed an accumulation of exogenous mineral grains, chert microdebitage, microvertebrate remains, and charcoal fragments in an organic-rich clay matrix. The absence of microstratification in the samples collected from the artifact-bearing stratum supports previous macroscopic evidence for a thorough mixing of the deposits that precludes an accurate contextual interpretation of the archaeological component.     

Managing,Valuing, and Protecting Heritage Resources in the Twenty-First Century: Peatland Archaeology,the Ecosystem Services Framework,and the Kyoto Protocol

Abstract

This paper argues that the development of the Ecosystem Services framework, which has recently emerged as an internationally recognized framework for valuing ‘the ‘natural capital’ of ecosystems, presents a number of opportunities for heritage management and the archaeological record, arguing that the inclusion of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental ‘value’ within this framework presents an opportunity to incorporate heritage alongside a range of other critical ‘services’. It presents a short case study focusing on the problems facing the preservation of peatland archaeological sites and deposits in situ alongside developments within peatland conservation and restoration initiatives partly driven by the ability of healthy, functioning peatlands to sequester carbon and hence mitigate climate change. It is argued that this drive towards peatland re-wetting may bring both positive benefits and opportunities for heritage management but also presents a number of practical issues, which now require active engagement from the archaeological community.