Somaliland

The changing pattern of land‐use in the Forest of Abernethy, Inverness‐shire in the period AD 1750 to the present is examined, using information from records and a number of maps and surveys. It is shown that the forest has a long history of exploitation for timber and the grazing of livestock, and that by the mid‐eighteenth century a pattern not markedly different from that of the present had already emerged. Evidence for the widespread formation of heathland in Dark Age times, and the fact that almost every part of Abernethy has been felled for timber at least once, modifies the concept of the forest as a “native Pinewood”.     

Analysis of Construction Timber in Rural Austria: Wooden Log Walls

House-building with wood has a long tradition in Austria. In this study, 47 houses from the Austrian Alps and the alpine foothills were analyzed. Dendrochronology was used to date the houses and to extract further information as construction phases within one building and time needed for harvesting. The construction dates range between 1452 and 1934. The focus was set on log constructions and in particular on wooden log walls. All wooden walls were made of softwood, clearly dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies). A remarkable decline in the utilization of spruce wood as construction timber was found during the 19th century, which might be due to the high charcoal production at that time. By analyzing age, wood species, time of harvesting and way of processing, knowledge about wood utilization and historical forest management can be regained. Furthermore, some social and economical background of the farmers can be lifted. Technical dates as wall thickness and total wood volume required to build a residential building is provided.     

古建筑木结构的保护问题

我国古建筑以木结构体系为主,主要承重材料是木材。木材是生物体,由有机物组成,容易发生腐朽、虫蛀、火灾和力学性能衰减等劣化,其中腐朽和虫蛀等生物危害的发生最为普遍。本文重点介绍了古建筑修缮和保护中,木材的保存、干燥、木材防腐处理的通用药剂和使用方法,针对古建筑保护中存在的树种选择困难、木材防腐处理质量和木材含水率过高等问题,提出建议,为古建筑木结构的保护和维修提供最新的信息。     

The Forest Products Industry,A Specialized Activity of the Sos'va Valley Section of the Ob' Basin

The construction of the Ivdel'—Ob' railroad has opened up the rich timber resources of the Sos'va section of the Ob' River basin. Fifteen logging centers are in operation along the rail line, shipping 3.5 million cubic meters of timber, mainly as roundwood. Selective logging practices used at the present time tend to deplete timber reserves more rapidly than planned. To preserve the Sos'va region as a long-term supplier of timber for the industrial regions of the USSR, sound forest management is recommended, including multipurpose utilization of felled timber and reforestation. The forest products industry will be more economical if about 70 percent of the felled timber is converted into marketable wood products in major mill complexes planned for the region, leaving 30 percent for shipment as roundwood (pitprops, pulpwood, shipbuilding timber). The proposed Lower Ob' hydroelectric power project, even with the lower normal headwater surface now under consideration, would prevent economic development of the region by flooding valuable resource lands.     

Build for the Living: Stone Buildings of the Yuan Dynasty

It is easy to find an association between stone architecture and the afterlife in pre-modern China, given that most architecture of brick and stone was used only for mortuary monuments. People in pre-modern China may have believed that timber architecture was for the living while stone architecture was for the deceased. The fact that stone architecture often was designed to imitate timber architecture further buttresses the dominance of timber, both structurally and aesthetically, in the architectural history of pre-modern China. This article focuses on several stone buildings that were built during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) for daily religious activities and were rare exceptions to the normative association of stone architecture with the afterlife. Through the study of the structure, decorative motifs and history of these stone buildings, I determine whether they were built to reflect the tradition of imitation timber architecture or were an exception to the dominance of timber architecture. I investigate how these stone buildings should be contextualized in the history of Yuan as well as the history of Chinese architecture.     

Timber economy in the Roman Age: charcoal data from the key site of Herculaneum (Naples,Italy)

The city of Herculaneum (Naples, southern Italy), buried by the volcanic eruption of Mount Somma-Vesuvius in 79 ad, is a key site for understanding the timber economy during the Roman period. In this paper, the results of charcoal analysis of different building element types are presented. Beams, joists, poles, planks and door and window frames were investigated allowing us a view of which timber the Romans preferred for building in this area. We also fit the taxonomic results into the reconstruction of the ancient Campanian landscape, and finally, we discuss the knowledge that the Romans had about the technological properties of the wood that they used for building and the possible selection criteria that they followed in choosing them. Coniferous timber is the preferred material for building purposes. Abies alba is especially used, this fact confirming its stronger presence in southern Italian woods during the past and suggesting that its decline is mainly due to human overexploitation. The large presence of Cupressus sempervirens, selectively used for the production of poles, confirms that this tree was cultivated in plantations for timber production in the Vesuvius area. Furthermore, it might indicate that cypress could have been present as a natural tree in the local vegetation, suggesting a forest type that nowadays almost completely disappeared from this area and from the entire Italy. The findings of Juglans regia, Pinus pinea and Olea europaea, typical elements of the Mediterranean cultural landscape, show that their use was not limited to fruit production and that Romans also appreciated their timber. Beside these local resources, the presence of Picea abies and Picea/Larix indicates the importation of timber from northerly regions, probably the northern Apennines and the Alps.     

The Influence of Dowel-Bearing Strength in Designing Timber Pegged Timber Joints

ABSTRACT

The employment of timber pegs in timber structure joints is a widespread technology in the field of timber frame building in the United States, where the Timber Frame Engineering Council has published a special Standard to supplement the National Design Specification for Wood Construction. The authors have been studying the possibility of supplementing the Eurocode 5 design formulas, thought for timber joints with metal connectors, with specifications needed for a reliable design when employing timber pegs. The field of application envisaged is that of restoring timber structures and results obtained until now are quite encouraging. In this step of the research, more attention has been paid to deformation process: fir and chestnut samples have been tested to determine their dowel-bearing behavior with steel and ash timber peg while double-shear plane joints made of the same wood species, and fastened with steel as well as timber pegs, have been analyzed.     

上下椽头尾搭接的木构古建筑受力性能的简化计算方法研究

古建筑木结构主要分为抬梁木构体系和穿斗木构体系,其结构布置与连接节点明显不同于现代木结构。为了进一步提高古建筑木结构的结构计算和结构安全评估的工程实用性,对常见木椽的受力性能简化算法、常见拼合檩条的受力性能简化算法、三架梁和五架梁受力性能的简化算法进行研究,并基于动力特性分析,初步提出古建筑木结构典型构架体系在进深方向和面阔方向结构基本自振周期的近似计算模型。研究成果可为古建筑木结构的结构性能计算、结构安全评估以及加固修缮设计提供依据和参考。     

Revealed by Waves: A Stratigraphic,Palaeoecological, and Dendrochronological Investigation of a Prehistoric Oak Timber and Intertidal Peats,Bay of Ireland,West Mainland,Orkney

An oak timber was discovered in 2013 within intertidal peats at the Bay of Ireland, Stenness, Orkney, representing a unique archaeological find. Subsequent excavation and rescue of the timber took place in 2014 to investigate its stratigraphical relationship before further eroding. Dendrochronological and morphological study identified the timber as a possible radially split log, c. 150 years of age when felled. No dendrochronological match was possible, and a wiggle-match date obtained provided a Later Mesolithic felling date of 4410–4325 cal BC. This timber is the first and only evidence so far for the use of oak in Mesolithic Orkney. The timber is significant palaeoecologically, suggesting oak may have been indigenous to Orkney. This adds to a growing argument for the existence of areas of “true woodland”. Pollen evidence shows the timber was deposited within reedswamp, fringed by willow-birch carr-woodland, with oak unlikely to have been growing in the immediate location. High microscopic and macroscopic charcoal values indicate Later Mesolithic communities exerted influence on this wetland using burning as a tool for landscape modification. It is unknown what the timber represents; it may have been for construction purposes or as a marker/possible landing place showing the path to the Loch of Stenness.     

History and Characteristics of Construction Techniques Used in Traditional Timber Ottoman Houses

The aim of this article is to make a comprehensive review of the traditional timber house constructions in Turkey, which constitutes the majority of the existing Ottoman architectural legacy. After a short historical background focused on the Ottoman territory, the first section explores regional differences in the housing tradition, developed according to local features and defined by architectural features, material characteristics, and availability of materials. Derived from these regional differences, in the second section diversity in traditional timber construction systems in Turkey is described with special emphasis on the Ottoman h?m?? system. In this part, besides the discussion of the h?m?? technique which spread over Ottoman lands from the Balkans to Syria, the timber masonry and frame systems of the Eastern Black Sea Region and Thrace are presented in detail with visual support.     

Assessment of Construction Techniques and Material Usage in İzmir Rural Houses

The domestic architecture in the rural villages of ?zmir comprises a unique built environment with their masonry wall textures, semi-open sofas, round tiled-hipped roofs, and chimneys, and represents an important part of the cultural and architectural heritage. This assessment is mainly based on field observations that focus on the architectural and structural layout of intact, damaged, and destroyed houses. During field observation and the analysis of data certain plan typologies and relationships between the geological formations of the region and choice of materials and construction techniques were observed. While load-bearing masonry and timber skeleton systems are common, extensive use of timber laces, stone, and fired or adobe brick masonry with mud mortar and timber frames infilled with masonry materials were frequently seen. Generally, round timber elements such as wall plates, laces, lintels, posts, and frames of flooring systems are used. Architectural degenerations in authentic houses, defective details and partially due to the earthquake-prone nature of the region seismicity have been evaluated. An overall approach for the preservation and sustainability of this heritage is suggested.     

Oaks,tree-rings and wooden cultural heritage: a review of the main characteristics and applications of oak dendrochronology in Europe

We overview the recent development of oak dendrochronology in Europe related to archaeology and art-history. Tree-ring series of European oaks (Quercus robur and Q. petraea) have provided a reliable framework for chronometric dating and reconstruction of past climate and environment. To date, long oak chronologies cover almost the entire Holocene, up to 8480 BC and the network over the entire area in which the two oaks grow is being improved. We present the main characteristics of oak ring series and discuss the latest methodological advances in defining the calendar year in which the tree-rings were formed and in interpreting such dating in terms of the age of a wooden object. Dendrochronology has established itself as a standard dating tool and has been applied in a wide variety of (pre-)historical studies. Archaeological wood, historical buildings, works of art (such as panel paintings and sculptures) have been successfully investigated. Recent advances in dendro-provenancing have helped to obtain more information on the timber trade in the past. Information on past forest structures, silviculture and timber use have become available through scrutinizing historical and contemporary ring-width patterns.     

National Forest Timber Management Over the Past Decade

Timber output, the major commodity use of the National Forests, was tracked from 1981 to 1993, to assess changes that have occurred in the amount of timber offered, sold, and harvested. In addition, changes in the method of harvest used on the National Forests were examined to view trends in the management practices of the Forest Service. Although trends regarding changes in timber harvest methods varied from region to region, data on timber offered, sold, and harvested showed a dramatic decrease both nationally and in important timber-producing regions since the late 1980s. This reduction, when seen in the light of other recent studies, suggests that the Forest Service is changing the emphasis of its management practices, placing less priority on the traditional high level of timber output.     

基于能量方法的江浙地区抬梁式及穿斗式传统民居木构件重要性分析

为研究中国传统木构建筑的结构构件重要性排序问题,以江浙地区抬梁式和穿斗式两种典型的传统民居木结构类型为研究对象,基于能量方法采用构件属性改变后对结构整体应变能的单位体积改变率作为构件重要性的评价指标,运用有限元软件Ansys(16.0)开发了基于生死单元法和改变弹性模量法的构件重要性评价程序。分析结果表明,改变弹性模量法更适用于中国传统木构建筑的结构构件重要性分析。通过对抬梁式和穿斗式的单榀框架和整体框架在竖向荷载、水平地震荷载两种工况下的结构构件重要性的计算分析,得到了构件的重要性系数和排序,并提取出了抬梁式和穿斗式传统木构的关键构件。研究结果可以为确定传统木构建筑遗产在修缮施工、维护以及结构健康监测过程中需要重点关注的构件提供科学合理的理论依据。     

Timber-framed Houses Built for the Court Members after the 1894 Earthquake in Istanbul: Rationalization of Construction Techniques

During the second half of the 19th century, Western European industrial achievements affected construction techniques in Istanbul. Ottoman archival documents reveal the usage of industrial materials and machine shaped timber elements, which brought the rationalization of traditional timber construction techniques. After the 1894 Istanbul earthquake, many post-earthquake timber-framed houses constructed as temporary shelters in the precincts of masonry mansions were rapidly built due to the rationalization in building techniques. Since there is not any inventory for the industrial materials and techniques used in the second half of the 19th century in Istanbul, their determination is of crucial importance in the process of conservation.     

Reaction to Fire of Existing Timber Elements Protected With Fire Retardant Treatments: Experimental Assessment

Fire safety is an important issue of building safety, especially when the building’s fire load contents enhance the risks of fire deflagration. When existing timber structures are involved, the most usual way to improve its reaction to fire is to treat wood with fire retardants. This study focuses on the surface protection of existing timber roof structures against fire, through the use of fire retardant (FR) treatments applied on site. An experimental investigation was carried out to study the effect of FR treatments on timber reaction to fire, with a special emphasis on timber members with biological deterioration and previously treated with preservative products. The behaviour and effectiveness of intumescent and non-intumescent treatments was also investigated. The study showed that the application of FR treatments improved the reaction to fire of timber, even in the presence of previous preservative treatments. However, the choice of the specific FR treatment should take into account the substrate conditions. In addition, test results suggest that protection systems involving multi layers (intumescent and non-intumescent) with different functioning modes each are likely to have a good global performance on the protection of timber elements against fire.     

Proceedings at Meetings of the Royal Archæological Institute February 5, 1885

Excavation of the Franciscan friary church at Hartlepool revealed an apparent two phase stone construction, preceded by an aisled timber building. An initial long narrow church of c.1240 was extended by the addition of a nave and north aisle. An extensive series of burials from beneath the church floor and from the friary burial ground provides useful pathological information, whilst a range of worked stone and other building materials, together with evidence for window manufacture, provides information on the fabric of the building. After the Dissolution the friary site was occupied by a mansion.     

Athenian owls and the royal Macedonian monopoly on timber

The aim of this article is to show that the reason for large numbers of Athenian tetradrachms being part of hoards buried in southern and south-eastern Asia Minor, mainly Cilicia, is related to the supply of timber for the Athenian fleet. From the reign of Perdikkas II to the beginning of the Hellenistic period, Athens was only able to import timber from Macedonia for a very limited number of years and so Macedonia could not be Athens's regular timber supplier.     

Post-Tensioned Glulam Beam-Column Joints with Advanced Damping Systems: Testing and Numerical Analysis

This article describes tests investigating a feasible source of passive damping for post-tensioned glue-laminated (glulam) timber structures. This innovative structural system adapts precast concrete PRESSS technology [Priestley et al., 1999] to engineered wood products combining the use of post-tensioned tendons with large timber members. Current testing is aimed at further improvement of the system through additional energy dissipation. Testing has favorably compared glue-laminated timber (not previously implemented in this way) with laminated veneer lumber (LVL) used in New Zealand. After initial benchmark testing with post-tensioning only, a simple, minimally invasive and replaceable type of hysteretic damper was added.     

Provenancing Baltic timber from art historical objects: success and limitations

During the Middle Ages northern Belgium and The Netherlands were gradually deforested. A steadily rising demand for quality timber obliged merchants to look for new timber sources. From the 13th century onwards, large volumes of timber were imported from surrounding regions and, despite the remote supply area, merchants of the Hanseatic League managed to organize a huge timber trade from towns around the Baltic Sea.Trees from forests along the Vistula River seem to have been exported via Gdansk, first to Bruges and later to Antwerp. At their final destination the imported wood assortments were highly appreciated for shipbuilding and construction purposes, but also by woodcarvers and famous painters.Over the last decade dendrochronologists have established a dense network of historical site chronologies for northern and central Poland. These site chronologies are supposed to reflect local growth conditions and may allow the identification of the provenance of the wood of many art historical objects made out of Baltic timber.Tree-ring patterns of panel paintings and sculptures, mainly from the 14th–16th centuries, were measured and compared to this data set of site chronologies. An evaluation of the accuracy of sourcing medieval Baltic timbers using standard correlation techniques was made. The identification of provenance enriches historical information on logging activity and timber trade around the Baltic Sea during the Middle Ages.