试论明代州县官吏

明王朝是高度专制主义中央集权的封建国家,对地方权力控制相当严密。这不仅表现在中央削弱了地方独立性的权力,而且也表现在地方行政机构的日益完善。在此基础上,作为相对稳定的州县行政区划,从主官、佐贰、首领官到司吏、攒典、胥役的权责规定更加具体,考课更加细密,由他们所组成的行政组织得到了全面强化。这不但使组织体系更加完备,而且对官吏本人的控制也更加严密。因此,在专制主义大帝国内,众多的州县官吏构成了一个特别而多彩的——州县官吏世界。     

明清州县监狱的牢头

明清州县监狱由地方行政长官控制,州县长官称为"有狱官"。州县监狱设施简陋,社会治安及诉讼多的州县,往往关押人犯很多,以数量有限制的官、吏、卒等对囚犯实施管理,往往捉襟见肘,乃至力不从心,因此在囚犯中任命牢头协助管理囚犯,是州县监狱管理狱囚的无奈选择。牢头为恶,在明清时期是世人皆知的问题,他们在监狱中恃强凌弱、动用私刑,操其他狱囚生死于股掌之间。也有一些州县官,采取措施制止牢头在狱中对其他囚犯动用私刑,并能将囚犯组织起来,对监狱实施有效管理。不过,明清时期的牢头和私刑问题并没有得到有效遏制。     

清代州县衙门经费

本文通过对清代州县衙门经费的量化分析,发现州县衙门经制性经费与实际所需之间有很大的差距.清廷虽然试图解决这一问题,但终清之世,效果寥寥.因此,州县官为了保障政务活动的进行,不得不采取征收田赋附加、差徭、杂税盈余等手段加以补苴,结果使百姓的负担日益加重.     

同光年间州县官选任制度的嬗变

同治光绪年间,由于捐纳、保举的扩张,州县候选人员激增,流品混杂。与此同时,各省督抚选用州县官常常不拘文法,突破成例。在上述背景下,清廷力图从多方面进行整顿,但多不能行。这一时期州县官选任制度的变化虽然只是在旧制基础上的渐变,然而这些问题却成为清末新政时期铨选制度改革的内在动因。     

清代州县佐贰官研究综述

佐贰官是相对正官而言,其意在于辅助。清代州县佐贰官主要包括州同、州判、县丞和主簿。自秦汉设官以来,在地方权力结构中刻意构建交错和制约的关系是统治者强化政府内部监督的重要途径。正佐之间相互监督机制的推行在历史上确实也曾发挥过相当的效能。明清以降,随着主官负责制的不断强化,     

试论宋神宗时期的州县省废

撤废州县政区建制是熙丰变法的重要内容之一。自熙宁元年至九年,尤其是王安石当政期间,一批户少役繁的州县被撤销。虽在宋神宗主持新政时期,有部分已废州县得到复建,但整个宋神宗时期仍有22个州、116个县被撤。省废州县,裁官减役,省费节流,对缓解当时冗官冗费和减轻百姓的负担,具有重要意义。这项务实的改革,遇到的阻力不大,在元祐初大部分得以幸存。     

唐后期诸司与州县差役纠纷探析

唐后期直属中央的诸司侵凌州县、影占差役人户的现象较为普遍。这是新旧赋役体系交替和行政体制转轨背景下相关因素综合作用的结果。两税法推行后,诸司吏役不再由计司与州县统筹调配,而是自行选补。由于使职差遣体制下诸司地位高于州县和二者在政务运行中关联不足等体制、机制问题,诸司选补吏役时多影占州县人户。为惩此弊,朝廷将由君相审核的挟名敕机制引入诸司吏役选补流程中,并在大赦文中多次申明。五代宋初,朝廷逐步调整诸司与州县的关系,落实吏役选补“不碍州县色役”“候州县回文”等原则,明确州县在差役事务上的统筹权。与此同时,加强对诸司吏役定额的管理。《天圣赋役令》等相关令典确立了“户”作为差役的计征单位,除官户外的所有人户都是州县差役承担者的原则。诸司与州县的差役纠纷现象由此消解。以上复线的历史过程,是唐宋之际以两税制度为核心的赋役体系演进的重要内容。     

晚清广东州县催征钱粮探微——以《望凫行馆宦粤日记》的记载为中心

同治、光绪年间在广东任州县官的杜凤治,留下一部350余万字的日记,其中有大量有关州县征收钱粮的内容,研究清代赋税的学者很少有人注意到这部日记.从杜凤治的日记可知,晚清广东各州县普遍钱粮难征,州县官经常要带领大队人马下乡催征钱粮,平时则派官亲、委员、幕客、"家人"等设立若干粮站收粮,罗定州还存在殷丁参与征粮的制度.杜凤治在任职的所有州县,无不依靠族绅、局绅的协助催征钱粮.在催征过程中,州县官经常要使用包括枷号、杖责、羁押、封祠堂、烧屋等威胁和强迫手段.在杜凤治的日记中基本没有写花户"自封投柜"的事,也看不到图甲制在州县征粮过程中的作用,令人感到困惑.     

官治与自治之问：清末州县劝学所述评

内容提要 在清末的兴学热潮中,州县出现了一个新机构——劝学所。劝学所总董和劝学员由本地人担任,办学经费主要是自筹,职权上包揽地方一切办学事务,具有很强的自治特点。但是,由于当时地方自治并未成立,劝学所更多的是秉承提学使指令,并在地方官的监督下开展工作,所以只是一个半官治半自治的机构。随着劝学所的出现,州县社会中出现了一个劝学绅董群体,他们的权力直接来源于官府的札委,职责范围涉及官办学务和自治学务两个方面。虽然他们并没有被纳入正式官员的行列,但却具有正式权力,成为半官半绅、亦官亦绅的双面人物。劝学所的这一特点充分反映了清末地方机构改革中新旧交替的内在矛盾和基本特征。     

康乾时期东莞县“盐入粮丁”与州县盐政的运作

州县在清代盐政和保障盐税征收中至为重要,负有地方通商疏引的职责,朝廷对州县官也有严格的盐法考成。但由于清代制度设计中地方州县没有独立地位,因此在盐政的日常运作中常常处于被动。康乾时期广东东莞县"盐入粮丁"(将盐课派入田亩)的事件,就是在上级政策与州县实际之间的矛盾激发下进行制度调整的结果,是一个从不符合朝廷盐法,到在州县的日常运作中逐渐得到默许的政策。这一过程表明,州县官在盐法考成的压力下,时常借助时势变化和对制度的因应利用,通过寻求州县与上层制度之间的博弈点和利益契机,达到适时调整地方盐法的目的,从而保障有清一代盐政的有效运作和盐税的正常完纳。     

Climate and energy security policies and measures: synergies and conflicts

Concerns about climate and energy security are leading to increased government intervention in the energy sector, in particular as they relate to the choice of energy supply options. While many of these options will improve both energy and climate security, many measures will benefit one while harming the other. This raises an important question for governments and energy planners: how can conflicts between climate and energy security be resolved? This article outlines some of the barriers and problems that may arise as governments and companies try to address climate and energy security concerns simultaneously in various energy supply areas. It concludes by arguing against choosing one objective over the other, and by outlining steps that can be taken to help resolve conflicts between the two agendas.     

我和我的兄弟姐妹

1938年．我出生在金沙江畔一个叫巴塘的小县城里。生在哪一天．至今不知道．因此．六十多年过去了．我从来也没有过过生日。     

Challenger and Chernobyl Lessons and Reflections

Abstract

It is argued that Psychological research on 'race' and 'ethnicity' issues presents a number of ethical problems. These relate to the sociopolitical impact of such research, particularly when it purports to find differences of an 'innate' character; to the use of naive subjects, particularly children, in research which is aimed at demonstrating their 'inferiority'; and, within the academic community itself, to the working relationships between researchers who believe in 'innate' 'race' differences and colleagues belonging to allegedly 'inferior' groups – this being particularly significant within a teaching environment. Although the 'race differences' question has a long and controversial history, ethical issues relating to the research process itself have received less focused attention. Moreover, replacement of the genetically obsolete concept of 'race' with the idea of 'ethnicity' does not solve the problem entirely, and the term 'ethnicity' is itself unsatisfactory in several respects.     

Power and Ethnicity History and Anthropology

This essay reflects on the relationship between anthropological and historical scholarship of ethnicity, picking up on themes explored by Andre Gingrich, by considering the epistemological and evidentiary limitations of social scientific and historical analysis and reconstruction. Beginning with the consideration of the pioneering transdisciplinary efforts of Robert Darnton and Clifford Geertz, it argues that many of the weaknesses ascribed to such efforts are actually part of the nature of social scientific investigation which, in the terms of Peter Winch, must take into account two sets of relationships: that of the relationship between the scientist and the phenomena that he or she observes and the symbolic system that he or she shares with other scientists, which can only be understood from the social context of common activity. How these two relationships challenge social scientific analysis of ethnicity are examined through a consideration of the difficulties of applying Anthony Smith's definition of an ethnie to either Fredrik Barth's classic essay on “Pathan Identity and its Maintenance” or Helmut Reimitz's study of Frankish identity. It concludes that neither anthropologists nor historians are simply describing societies as they are or as they were but rather attempt to describe societies as witnesses within them thought they should be, and we do this for our own society, not for those of the participants, past or present.     

Of Demons and Angels and Historical Humans: Some Events and Questions in Translation and Post-colonial Theory

In what follows, I attempt to show that a look at some curious examples of translations from European texts makes us think about issues in translation theory and post-colonial theory from a slightly different angle. The metaphor of translation can very well be employed for understanding the relation between European texts, and some texts and some social and political practices in India in the colonial period, and this in turn helps us look critically at what I shall call our fuzzy post-colonialism. I also argue that Walter Benjamin's metaphor of translation as the after-life of a work can be extended to posit two basic modes of after-life.     

后伊拉克时代与中国的内政外交--普遍主义与单边主义的冲突

"9·11"事件后,冷战后的国际政治格局发生了重大变化.其最大特征可以概括为以下两点:第一,确立了以唯一超级大国--美国为核心的以反恐为普遍主义的全球性安全阵线;第二,美国的爱国主义、民族主义戏剧性地高涨起来.就像当时有人强调因为全世界有60多个国家的人在世界贸易中心工作,所以对世贸中心的攻击就是对全世界的攻击那样,在美国国民中普遍存在着这样的观点:因为美国社会自身就是世界的缩影,所以星条旗也可被看作是超越一国国界的全人类的普遍象征.