Mortality and sanitary conditions in the "best governed city in the world"--Birmingham, 1870-1910.

The growth of population in nineteenth-century Britain has often been attributed to the decline in mortality during that period. Here the relationship between improvements in sanitary conditions and the fall in disease mortality is considered for one particular city in the period 1870–1910. Medical Officer of Health reports are used to show the spatiotemporal patterns of both a selection of fatal diseases and sanitary conditions in Birmingham in the 1880s. This evidence suggests that administrative developments in hospital provision, for instance, need to be combined with public health improvements in any explanation of mortality decline. Further, that poverty, as reflected by back to back housing, is more closely associated with high mortality than variables measuring sanitary conditions.     

Securitizing infectious disease

Over the past decade there has been an increased awareness in the field of international relations of the potential impact of an infectious disease epidemic on national security. While states’ attempts to combat infectious disease have a long history, what is new in this area is the adoption at the international level of securitized responses regarding the containment of infectious disease. This article argues that the securitization of infectious disease by states and the World Health Organization (WHO) has led to two key developments. First, the WHO has had to assert itself as the primary actor that all states, particularly western states, can rely upon to contain the threat of infectious diseases. The WHO's apparent success in this is evidenced by the development of the Global Outbreak Alert Response Network (GOARN), which has led to arguments that the WHO has emerged as the key authority in global health governance. The second outcome that this article seeks to explore is the development of the WHO's authority in the area of infectious disease surveillance. In particular, is GOARN a representation of the WHO's consummate authority in the area of coordinating infectious disease response or is GOARN the product of the WHO's capitulation to western states’ concerns with preventing infectious disease outbreaks from reaching their borders and as a result, are arguments expressing the authority of the WHO in infectious disease response premature?     

中日对抗与公共卫生事业领导权的较量——对"南满洲"铁路、港口中心城市的观察(1901-1911)

1905年日俄战争之后,日本在南满控制区域内的铁路、港口中心城市大力推进公共卫生事业,与此同时,中国官府也积极创办当地公共卫生事业,双方就公共卫生事业领导权展开激烈的竞争和较量,并在一定程度上改善了某些特定区域的卫生环境。然而,由于这是一种扩张/反抗的展开模式,在疾病治疗和预防疾病之外被赋予了更多的政治考量,致使城市贫民区与乡村的医疗卫生条件并未得到重点关注和大量投入,很长一段时间内该地区仍然疾病丛生,恶性传染病蔓延。在这个意义上,日本推进的公共卫生事务自然有其殖民主义扩张、帝国主义统治处心积虑、老谋深算的一面,中国官府和社会的自强卫生、救国医学则或可被视为一种不得已的推进方式。     

Health in Papua New Guinea: a Decline in Development

Papua New Guinea has experienced the start of an epidemiological transition in health status from infectious towards non-communicable diseases, though the latter were absent until the post-war years. This transition is particularly marked in urban and coastal areas, where life expectancies are higher and mortality rates lower. Tropical diseases remain significant, malaria has worsened and new mobility has increased the severity of epidemics of influenza and measles. Indigenous medical systems have increasingly given way to modern medical systems, though disease aetiology is usually perceived through traditional cognitive models. Modern medical systems were mainly developed in the 1960s and 1970s, on either side of independence, but despite an official focus on primary health care, have had much reduced effectiveness since the 1980s. Rural health centres have been poorly maintained and serviced, and health workers have limited skills and access to resources. The health budget has been increasingly concentrated in urban areas, though the bulk of the population and of the health problems are in rural areas, resulting in a worsening ‘inverse care law’, that is particularly significant for women. Overall health status has declined in the past decade despite overseas advocacy of new policies and the prospects for improvement are poor.     

PATHS IN TRANSNATIONAL TIME-SPACE: REPRESENTING MOBILITY BIOGRAPHIES OF YOUNG SWEDES

This article sets out to capture and describe individual transnational mobility from a long‐term, biographical perspective. The purpose is to discuss the use of a time‐geographical form of notation to represent people's transnational mobility as paths in time and space, and to demonstrate how such representations can contribute to explaining some of the dynamics of longdistance mobility. An advantage of using time‐space paths is that several aspects of an individual's travel biography can be represented in a single image: intensity and extensity are immediately evident, and the temporal and spatial relationships between the various mobility actions are made visible. Using data describing all transnational trips taken during childhood and adolescence by sixty‐two Swedish youth with different backgrounds, three aspects of how trajectories develop over time are discussed in more detail. The first concerns overall change in travel pattern with time. A dominant pattern of increase in travel with increasing age is observed, indicating the importance of further investigating how travel behaviour is related to experience and life‐course transitions. Second, sequential relationships between migration and temporary mobility are examined. In spite of the relatively small number of respondents, a wide range of such relationships are disclosed in the material. Third, regularity and repetition in long‐distance travel patterns is discussed as an increasingly important aspect of contemporary transnational mobility. Among these young people, highly regular travel is often motivated by enduring long‐distance social relationships, but is also generated by leisure or holiday travel alone.     

Sanctions and tourism: effects,complexities and research

Abstract

Despite the growing use of sanctions as a post-Cold War foreign policy instrument, there is limited research on sanctions in a tourism context despite their substantial impact on destinations and tourist flows. Although there is significant research on sanctions in political science, international relations, economics, and public policy, very few studies explicitly examine the effect of sanctions on tourism. This study therefore examines the intricate geopolitical relationship between sanctions and tourism via a scoping review of relevant literature. Each of the four main types of sanctions that were identified: financial, sectoral, diplomatic and individual, have different implications for tourism at various scales. The findings show that tourism is profoundly affected by sanctions impacting tourism and hospitality businesses and destination image, severely restricting international travel, and disrupting financial investment and supply chains. More comprehensive sanctions may lead to substantial economic and personal hardship in destinations as well as indirect effects including decline in the value of currency and inflationary pressures. Nevertheless, despite the development of smart and targeted sanctions they rarely affect the coercive capacity of the targeted government and induce political behavioural change. Resistive economies can develop in response to sanctions in which domestic tourism assumes greater significance as a result of reductions in international mobility. Some destinations facing sanctions also focus on specific international markets from non-sanctioning countries as well as a country’s diaspora. Overall, the study of sanctions deepens knowledge of the interrelationships between geopolitics, foreign policy and tourism and its ramifications for destinations. Significant gaps in knowledge for future research include the role of domestic politics in influencing sanctions policy, the selection of tourism as a specific target for sanctions, and the development of destination adaptation strategies to sanctions.     

网络舆情危机下旅游形象感知的变化及对出游意向的影响——以青岛“天价虾事件”为例

随着中国旅游经济的快速发展，提升和维护旅游形象成为旅游目的地的关键任务之一。然而，在互联网时代，网络舆情事件正在对旅游目的地形象带来新的威胁，值得引起学界关注。文章以青岛“天价虾事件”为例，采用结构方程模型，基于潜在游客视角尝试回答：网络舆情危机下，潜在游客对旅游目的地形象感知是否发生变化，形象感知的变化能否引起其出游意向的变化?结果表明：①网络舆情危机下，潜在游客的认知形象变差会直接导致情感形象和整体形象变差；同时，情感形象变差也会对直接引起整体形象变差。②网络舆情危机下，受认知形象变化和情感形象变化的影响，潜在游客的出游意向受到明显抑制；其中，情感形象起直接作用，认知形象起间接作用。     

Adopting a Strength‐based,Indigenous‐focused Approach to Studying Kuwait Post‐traumatic Stress

Research design can be elegant but rarely does good research embarking on a new and complex area travel in a straight line. This article briefly describes the winding journey of three investigators, two Kuwaitis, a sociologist and the other asocial work researcher, and one American psychologist. Their goal was to tale the emotional pulse of Kuwait in the shadows of fifteen years of Iraq‐induced trauma. Along the way they adopt an indigenous focus that lead them to invent a measure of Raha (wellbeing) especially suited for studying Kuwaitis. The latter portion of the paper describes the procedures and results of the development of the Kuwaiti Raha Scale, ending with a discussion of the implications for international research in the social sciences. This study was funded by the Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Science (KFAS).     

Soft Transport Policies and Ground‐Level Ozone: An Evaluation of the “Clear the Air Challenge” in Salt Lake City

In recent years, communities have begun to implement both “soft” and mandatory policies designed to address worsening air quality. Voluntary or soft transportation policies have included air quality alert systems that encourage people not to drive on days when the air quality index is above a specified threshold and public education/action campaigns that focus on reducing automobile related travel. In this article, we evaluate the effectiveness of one such soft policy, the Clear the Air Challenge (CAC), in reducing ground‐level ozone during the Wasatch Front's summer ozone season. Using daily ozone data and color‐coded daily air quality designations from 2006 through 2012, we estimate a range of nonequivalent control group models. In only one of the models does the CAC generate a statistically significant but small reduction in ground‐level ozone. Future research should assess the full range of costs and benefits to the public associated with such soft transport policies.     

Realising Australia's international education as public diplomacy

Australia's international education serves as public diplomacy, essentially engaging and influencing public audiences in ways that progress Australian foreign policy priorities and national interests. The multidimensional and increasingly globalised nature of international education presents enormous opportunity for vital exchange and interactions between and with students, academics and communities via onshore and offshore modes of delivery. Positive experiences of student mobility and the development of intellectual, commercial and social relationships can build upon a nation's reputation, and enhance the ability of that nation to participate in and influence regional or global outcomes. This is ultimately the essence of soft power. While Australia has made significant commercial gains through international education, it has fallen short of realising the soft power potential inherent in the volume and depth of interactions, relationships and achievements resulting from it, particularly in the Asian region, where Australia's international education sector continues to be most active. This article argues that there is a soft power benefit in recognising international education as public diplomacy, though acknowledges that challenges exist in connecting the soft power aspirations to reality. Findings suggest that there is room for more coherent public diplomacy leadership and inter-agency coordination, improved evaluation and expanded dialogue both within the sector and the broader community.     

抗战时期华北根据地的卫生防疫工作述论

抗战时期华北根据地疾疫流行广泛,疟疾、痢疾、伤寒、麻疹和流行性感冒等尤为严重。边区政府和军队从"一切为了战争胜利"的目的出发,积极建立各级卫生组织,颁布卫生防疫法规,开展积极的卫生防疫宣传和广泛的群众性卫生运动,切实实施包括组建各种医疗组和卫生防疫队、帮助各级政权训练卫生防疫人员、协助地方卫生工作、充分发挥中医中药的作用等各种卫生防疫办法,不仅有效地预防和控制了各种疾疫的流行,巩固了根据地的社会稳定,而且转变了根据地民众的卫生观念,破除了根据地民众落后的封建迷信思想,增进了广大民众对边区政府和军队普遍的政治认同,为其后的卫生防疫工作尤其是新中国的疾疫救治和卫生防疫体系的建立提供了丰富的经验。     

Rethinking music geography through the mainstream: a geographical analysis of Frank Sinatra,music and travel

This paper brings a new perspective to music geography by focusing on how a particular mainstream musician helped to construct, subvert, and circulate meanings associated with travel. It asserts that Frank Sinatra, via his music and actions, engaged with travel in ways that frequently ran counter to how it has commonly been enacted in American music and popular culture. Particular attention is paid to the singer’s travel-themed album, Come Fly With Me. By the time of its release in 1958, Sinatra, via a public persona that encompassed performer, ‘playboy’ and businessman, was a central figure in promoting an alignment of leisured mobility with postwar economic success. The paper interrogates how Sinatra’s celebrity allowed him to embody travel in certain real and imagined ways. It also examines what the resulting representations revealed about performances of gender, ethnicity, and status, and the expected modes of behavior that were associated with them, in America’s postwar consumer-driven society.     

Teaching English in South Korea: mobility norms and higher education outcomes in youth migration

In many Western contexts, travel has a long historical association with youth, young adults and coming of age, an association that often connects temporary mobility with the lives of the educated middle classes and elite. Indeed, from the colonial adventure and the ‘grand tour’, to contemporary ideas of the ‘gap year’ or ‘overseas experience’, the mobility of Western youth and young adults is often considered voluntary and based on a desire to explore places and develop positive personal attributes, marking a stark contrast to depictions of migration from the developing world as directly or indirectly forced and driven primarily by economic considerations. This paper questions this depiction of developed world mobility in the context of the changing economic conditions that face young graduates in many Western countries. Drawing on survey and interview data I focus on the profiles and biographies of young adults from English-speaking countries working as foreign language instructors in South Korea. Although the personal narrative of travel and exploration amongst these individuals remains significant, findings from this research also suggest that many of these young graduates are also driven by economic circumstances: unemployment or underemployment and high levels of debt usually associated with tertiary studies. This tension between the opportunities available to young people and the constraints imposed by their own circumstances raises important questions about the multiple layers of social and economic differentiation operating through higher education and international mobility in the lives of young people.     

Substitute or addition to hypermobile lifestyles? Second home mobility and Finnish CO2 emissions

Tourism produces an increasing share in global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These are mostly derived from transport emissions, and long-haul air travel in particular. Short-haul domestic tourism is believed by some to be a potential substitute for long-haul tourism. Using the example of Finland this paper examines the extent to which domestic second home tourism can substitute for other leisure trips and therefore contribute to reductions of travel-generated GHG emissions. Survey data are used to evaluate the CO₂ emissions caused by travel to domestic second homes, and to create statistical models that verify if the owners of domestic second homes travel to other leisure destinations less frequently than others, and if they cause less emissions by their leisure mobility than others with comparable economic and demographic background. We find that although the owners and users of domestic second homes travel for other leisure purposes less frequently than others, this does not mean their leisure mobility generates less emissions. Overall, owners of second homes produce significantly more CO₂ by their leisure mobility than non-owners. The use of second homes does not seem to be a substitute for high emission long-haul travels, but rather a part of an overall highly mobile leisure lifestyle. It is therefore necessary to better understand and influence the entire range of individual mobility behaviours in order to reduce travel-related GHG emissions.     

Tuberculosis: an airborne disease

This article focused on the complications for medical management of airborne diseases, such as tuberculosis. The bacilli that cause tuberculosis were first isolated in 1882, by Robert Koch. It took until 1944 for breakthrough treatment of tuberculosis. In 1998, the World Health Organization (WHO) is waging a new war against the spread of tuberculosis, which has made a comeback after years of quiescence. WHO predicts that 30 million people will die of tuberculosis and 300 million will be infected by 2008. Tuberculosis is transmitted by air in coughing, sneezing, talking, or spitting. A tuberculosis infected person can easily infect an additional 10-20 people in the same year with the same strain. The re-emergence of tuberculosis infections is due to increased migration, international travel and tourism, AIDS, multi-drug resistance, and the weakening of public health care systems in both developed and developing countries. Multi-drug resistance occurs due to people's failure to take prescribed medications for the allotted time period. Treatment takes 6-8 months, but symptoms disappear after 2-3 months. People forget to take their drug regimens over such a long period. Some find costs too high for drugs or doctor visits. Tuberculosis bacilli can mutate and become resistant to new drugs if strains are not eradicated. WHO new management strategies offer a short course of treatment that must be followed up with support from medical staff. The Directly Observed Treatment Strategy (DOTS) eliminates the bacteria from the body and reduces the potential for contagion. DOTS has demonstrated high cure rates and low cost ($11-40/person).     

1959年全国急性传染病学术会议的历史考察

1959年5月,为适应防疫的需要并迎接新中国成立10周年,中华人民共和国卫生部、中国人民解放军总后勤部卫生部和中华医学会在北京联合召开了全国急性传染病学术会议。会议贯彻中西医结合的卫生工作方针,结合时代发展需要,交流并总结了新中国成立以来医学界在防治急性传染病方面取得的成功经验,制定了8种急性传染病防治方案,对此后的传染病防治和研究起到了重要的推动作用。此次会议既为当代中国防疫史增添了浓墨重彩的一笔,同时也在我国医学发展史上具有重要意义。     

基于TOD策略的旅游新区公共交通系统规划方法——以阳宗海风景区为例

公共交通系统是旅游新区建设与发展的重要交通保障,科学的公共交通系统规划能够充分满足游客与内部居民的出行需求,并引导旅游新区空间布局的良性发展。为实现旅游新区交通的可持续发展与区域景点间的和谐互动,分析了旅游新区公共交通系统的发展需求。将TOD理念引入旅游新区公共交通系统规划,从现状调查、需求分析、方案设计、方案评价与方案实施等具体层面,设计了基于TOD策略的旅游新区公共交通系统规划流程。以昆明阳宗海风景名胜区为实例,在区域公共交通现状与公共交通需求分析的基础上,结合区域发展目标详细探讨了公交系统的规划模式,并对公交规划方案进行了评估。结果表明:基于TOD策略的旅游新区公共交通系统规划方法能够支持旅游新区用地布局和旅游业发展,并提高旅游新区公共交通系统出行的便捷性、舒适性和满意度。     

William Pulteney Alison, the Scottish philosophy, and the making of a political medicine

This article considers the public health and social-reform agitations of Dr. William Pulteney Alison (1790-1858), professor of medicine at Edinburgh University and leader of the Scottish medical profession, in the context of Scottish moral philosophy. Throughout his career, Alison reflected on what has come to be recognized as a central problem of social medicine: where did its domain end? At what point did the medical mission of identifying and eliminating factors that harm health pass into a non-medical domain-the provinces of political economy, individual liberty, participatory politics, or acceptance of nature's dictates? On these issues Alison was an expansionist, relentlessly pushing back the borders of medicine. Drawing on Alison's writings on such disparate topics as the philosophy of mind, the epidemiology of infectious diseases, and modes of agrarian organization, the article argues that the trajectory of much of Alison's work was to discover the structural implications of a comprehensive biological reading of human capacity and behavior. It is therefore appropriate to see him as a promulgator of a "political medicine," which he presented as a critical alternative to the classical political economy of the Scottish Malthusians. The article concludes by suggesting that Alison's work (and influence) have been under-recognized and remain pertinent to modern social epidemiology, public health, and medicine more broadly.     

Reconsidering the Geography of Tourism and Contemporary Mobility

Tourism is one of the world's largest legal industries. At the same time that tourism has grown so has its study, to the extent that there is debate as to whether it may constitute a discipline in its own right. Geographers have long contributed to the study of tourism. However, there is substantial concern over the development of the sub‐discipline and how tourism is conceptualised. A framework for understanding tourism in relation to contemporary human mobility over space and time is provided. This framework bears strong relationships to research on time geography as well as to work on diaspora and transnationalism. Some of the implications of incorporating tourism within the framework of mobility are outlined with respect to mobility as a form of capital, the relationships between different forms of mobility, and an improved understanding of tourism's impacts at all stages of the travel process rather than just at the destination.     

Sustainable transport planning and the Dublin transportation initiative

The concept of sustainability has become a significant consideration in planning in Europe and the US. At both the international and the national level, urban planners and policymakers have developed a package of policies designed to produce sustainable growth and development. In transport, this has been interpreted to mean that we need to increase accessibility while we reduce mobility by shifting trips from automobile to walking, bicycle or public transport modes. Using this criteria, the latest Dublin transport plan has been found to be only partially effective. Similar to many American transport plans, the DTI has opted for the infrastructure‐related sustainability policies and avoided the less popular economic disincentives.