“Numbers of individuals” in faunal analysis: the decay of fish bone in archaeological sites

Although quantifying animal remains in archaeological sites is best done by way of bone counts, there are several mechanisms that can cause distortions in the relative frequencies of different species. Some of these problems can be avoided by relatively minor modifications to standard methods, but the situation where bones have decayed since deposition cannot be controlled by methods currently in use.To overcome this a new technique is proposed. This involves comparing the relative frequencies of different anatomical elements across a number of sites, so that the extent of the dispersion of the frequencies of different bone classes at a site can be used as a guide to the extent of attrition there. This approach is illustrated by application to fish bones from sites in New Zealand.     

MATHEMATICS,STATISTICS AND ARCHAEOMETRY: THE PAST 50 YEARS OR SO*

This review of developments in the use of mathematics and statistics in archaeometry over the past 50 years is partial, personal and ‘broad‐brush’. The view is expressed that it is in the past 30 years or so that the major developments have taken place. The view is also expressed that, with the exception of methods for analysing radiocarbon dates and increased computational power, mathematical and statistical methods that are currently used, and found to be useful in widespread areas of application such as provenance studies, don't differ fundamentally from what was being done 30 years ago.     

How many bones make five? The art and science of guesstimation in archaeozoology

Six faunal statistics are described and assessed by means of simulation. Of these, the ‘probable number of individuals’ (PNI) methods, which include the Lincoln and Krantz indices, are shown to perform remarkably well. The assumptions of these PNI procedures are given and circumstances under which PNI methods can be employed are described. Palaeoeconomic methods occupy a middle ground between classical statistical theory and experimental archaeology, hence the use of the term ‘guesstimation’: this ground is explored and it is shown that these methods can have a considerable bearing on the interpretation of taphonomic and ‘spatial’ (intra-stratum) regularities. Promising avenues for future research are indicated.     

Electronic Information Management in the Social Sciences

Abstract

The use of the computer and its capabilities in the social sciences – psychology, sociology, economics, political science and history – are here discussed. It is suggested that the computer is essential to research in these disciplines and examples are given where certain research projects could not be undertaken without the capabilities of the computer. Three uses which are common to all the social science are described. First, there is a discussion of several computer-based statistical packages which have been specifically developed for the social sciences. Next, there is a presentation of the development of models and particularly casual modeling. Finally, computer-based bibliographic methods and capabilitie are described. More specific applications are: on-line control psychological experiments stimulus presentation, data acquisition, the simulation of psychological functions and the computer a a surrogate clinician; also the application of information-processing model in cognitive psychology. In sociology, the computer is used in social science surveys and particularly in the recent development of computer-based telephone survey techniques. In economics, there is a discussion of econometric modeling and particularly of Project LINK, a worldwide economic model. Finally, a number of examples are given of the use of computers in political science and historical research. It is concluded that the computer is a basic tool in social science research.     

Technical Note: Practical Challenges Facing the Selection of Conditional Spectrum-Compatible Accelerograms

There are various possibilities for the selection and scaling of ground motions for advanced seismic assessment of buildings using nonlinear response-history analyses. As part of an on-going project looking at building-specific loss assessment in Italy, this article highlights a number of challenges currently facing the use of conditional spectra for ground motion selection in practice, essentially related to the limited amount of seismic hazard information that is publicly available. To illustrate the points being made, the challenges faced when trying to develop conditional spectra and select spectrum-compatible accelerograms for a rock site in Napoli, Italy, are described and the seismic assessment results obtained for a number of reinforced concrete wall structures are presented. Aside from providing practitioners with an appreciation of the potential difficulty associated with using conditional spectra for record selection, this technical note should also motivate national authorities to provide more background information on national seismic hazard data and detailed guidance for record selection.     

饱水文物传统脱水方法与超临界流体干燥技术的应用

饱水文物的脱水加固是文物保护中的一个重要组成部分,为了克服干燥应力引起的文物结构的收缩和塌陷,传统脱水方法中常采用加填充剂浸渍等方法,从而使文物处理周期延长。超临界流体干燥技术利用气体在临界温度以上无论加多大压力都不能液化的特性,控制饱水文物内部的液体在临界点之上,使气/液界面消失,在无液相表面张力情况下进行的干燥过程。本工作在回顾传统饱水文物脱水加固的常用方法和存在问题的基础上,利用液体表面张力与温度的关系,从理论上解释超临界流体干燥技术用于干燥饱水文物具有能消除干燥应力的特点,介绍了国外学者利用该技术实际处理饱水文物时采用的实验装置、操作条件和干燥效果。与传统脱水方法对照,超临界流体干燥技术还具有能缩短文物处理周期、干燥过程中能同时杀菌等优点。     

Damage Assessment of Unreinforced Stone Masonry Buildings After the 2010–2011 Canterbury Earthquakes

The sequence of earthquakes that has affected Christchurch and Canterbury since September 2010 has caused damage to a great number of buildings of all construction types. Following post-event damage surveys performed between April 2011 and June 2011, an inventory of the stone masonry buildings in Christchurch and surrounding areas was carried out in order to assemble a database containing the characteristic features of the building stock, as a basis for studying the vulnerability factors that might have influenced the seismic performance of the stone masonry building stock during the Canterbury earthquake sequence. The damage suffered by unreinforced stone masonry buildings is reported and different types of observed failures are described using a specific survey procedure currently in use in Italy. The observed performance of seismic retrofit interventions applied to stone masonry buildings is also described, as an understanding of the seismic response of these interventions is of fundamental importance for assessing the utility of such strengthening techniques when applied to unreinforced stone masonry structures.     

The changing role of evaluation methods in a changing planning environment: Some Dutch experiences

This paper reviews the role of ex ante evaluation methods in Dutch planning practice in the past decades. It is illustrated that the improvement of the evaluation methodology is to a large extent based on a learning process. Many innovations were evoked by criticism and limitations disclosed in practical applications. Since the planning environment as well as the professional skills and attitudes are also constantly changing, this demands a high degree of flexibility of the evaluation methodology. A shift of interest can be witnessed from the quality of the decision towards the quality of decision‐making. It is argued in this paper that in Dutch planning practice currently at least four different situations can be distinguished with respect to the use (or non‐use) of formal ex ante evaluation methods. In planning situations with a hierarchical power structure evaluation methods are regularly used, whereas in situations with a mixed power structure evaluation methods are only used ‘in disguise’ (e.g. hidden in geographical information systems studies, market analysis).     

The green revolution game

Abstract

Teaching qualitative methods in the context of an existing research methods course presents a number of problems. Qualitative methods tend to be marginalised and constrained by traditional expectations of teachers and taught to elicit a polarised response from students. A number of factors contribute to this reaction: the paucity of library resources, a perception that qualitative methods are frivolous and challenge traditional values and the difficulty of teaching large numbers. As the course has developed, a number of innovations have been introduced to combat these reactions and they are described and evaluated in a short article by James Sidaway appended to this paper.     

Sampling and analysis of geothermal fluids

Sampling of geothermal fluids presents some problems not encountered when sampling surface and nonthermal ground waters. Specific collection techniques are required to obtain representative samples because of the elevated temperature and boiling of these fluids, the effect of exposing them to the atmosphere and cooling of the samples. Sample treatment during collection depends on the analytical method to be used. When sampling wet‐steam wells, both the liquid and the vapour fractions should be collected at the same fluid separation pressure. When sampling fumarole steam, maximum information is obtained if the total discharge is collected into a single container without separating the gas and the steam condensate fractions. Silica polymerization affects the solution pH. The only way to obtain reliable pH measurement of a water sample supersaturated with respect to amorphous silica is to measure it on site, before the onset of polymerization. This paper provides an outline of the geothermal sampling techniques and analytical methods currently in use in Iceland. Sampling of hot‐water and wet‐steam wells is described, as is sampling of hot springs, fumaroles and gas bubbling through hot‐spring waters. Detailed procedures are given for the analysis of total carbonate carbon and total sulphide sulphur in geothermal water and steam condensate samples.     

社会调查在二轮修志中的应用

社会调查是人们有目的地认识社会现象的一种活动,是获取第一手资料的一种方法和技术。人类学、社会学、民族学等学科领域十分注重对社会调查的应用。20世纪90年代以来,修志领域开始把社会调查作为提高志书质量的措施之一。社会调查在首轮修志中的应用存在诸多不足之处。社会调查报告在第二轮修志中的应用渐成趋势。根据第二轮修志中社会调查入志的形式、内容以及开展调查的方法,应用社会调查需注意如下问题：一是注重社会调查的针对性;二是注重社会调查的灵活性;三是注重自行调查的重要性;四是注重调查报告入志的必要性。     

Analytical methods for the conservation of the Buddhist temple II of Krasnaya Rechka,Kyrgyzstan

Abstract

The methods employed for selecting the repair material for the Buddhist temple II of Krasnaya Rechka, a site located in the upper Chuy Valley, Kyrgyzstan, are described in this article. The temple is built of mud brick and was excavated during several campaigns between 1938 and 1998 with no provision being made for conservation. The first emergency protective measures were initiated in 2003 during a UNESCO project that included other sites located in the Chuy valley. Most of the eroded walls of the temple were given a temporary shelter coat of mud bricks, a method that has proved effective. The main problem after proving the shelter coat was how to assess the repair material for future conservation work (it is planned to repeat the application of the shelter coat, but with materials with improved performance). Assessment was carried out after extensive laboratory analysis of both historic and repair materials, but also after test wall construction and monitoring. The methods explained here could be of use to conservators working in similar projects in the Middle East or Asia.     

Spatial Characteristics and Comparisons of Interaction and Median Clustering Models

Cluster analysis has been pursued from a number of directions for identifying interesting relationships and patterns in spatial information. A major emphasis is currently on the development and refinement of optimization‐based clustering models for the purpose of exploring spatially referenced data. Within this context, two basic methods exist for identifying clusters that are most similar. An interesting feature of these two approaches is that one method approximates the relationships inherent in the other method. This is significant given that the approximation approach is invariably utilized for cluster detection in spatial and aspatial analysis. A number of spatial applications are investigated which highlight the differences in clusters produced by each model. This is an important contribution because the differences are in fact quite significant, yet these contrasts are not widely known or acknowledged.     

Design and Assessment Spectra for Retrofitting of RC Buildings

This article presents a novel approach for deriving Retrofit Design Spectra (RDS) that are intended for use in preliminary development and assessment of seismic upgrading scenarios of existing structures. The new spectral representation relates the characteristics of the intervention method chosen as the core of the upgrading strategy, with the ductility and strength demand of the retrofitted structure. The methodology utilized for the derivation of the RDS is based on the Capacity Spectrum Method where the capacity curve is described by relationships for global and local intervention methods that are parameterized in terms of fundamental response quantities. The proposed spectra provide direct insight into the complex interrelation between the characteristics of the intervention method and the implications of the upgrading scenario on demand. Alternative retrofit solutions are thus assessed in an efficient way. A case study is used to illustrate practical application of the new approach.     

The Epipaleolithic (Iberomaurusian) from Grotte des Contrebandiers,Morocco

First identified 100 years ago, the Iberomaurusian is an Epipaleolithic industry that was described from a number of sites across western North Africa. One of these is Grotte des Contrebandiers (Smugglers’ Cave) in Morocco, where Abbé Jean Roche recovered Iberomaurusian materials in excavations in the late 1950s. Although the lithics were published in the early 1960s, subsequent changes in methods and in assessing the interpretive potential of lithic assemblages necessitated a restudy of these collections from Contrebandiers. This study led to a better understanding of the lithic types present and of the use of particular stone raw materials. Iberomaurusians emphasized lithic strategies that maximized use of fine-grained stone to the extent that pièces esquillées should be, among others, a defining criterion for this lithic industry.     

Using ancient DNA analysis in palaeopathology: a critical analysis of published papers,with recommendations for future work

Despite an observable increase in the number of studies using ancient DNA analysis to diagnose disease in human remains, there remain issues to be addressed about the quality of the resulting publications. This paper describes the qualitative analysis of published papers that describe the detection of pathogenic DNA in human skeletal and mummified remains from archaeological sites. Its ultimate goal is to provide an overview of the main problematic issues in relationship to standards developed in molecular biology and to make recommendations for future work. Sixty‐five papers published between 1993 and 2006 were surveyed and the quality of each was assessed using 15 criteria. Interesting results emerged. Of particular note was the high number of papers that did not acknowledge the use of even basic contamination control (90%) or procedures to validate results independently (85%). This study illustrates that attention to contamination control and authentication of results is needed in future research, if confidence in aDNA analysis in palaeopathology is to be increased. Additionally, methods of analysis must be described in published papers to ensure transparency in processes utilised to generate the data. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Statistical Methods for Evaluating the Geometrical Hierarchy of a Network

The objective of this paper is to present statistical methods for evaluating the geometrical hierarchy of a network in comparison with a random hierarchy network. First, the random hierarchy network is explicitly formulated by four stochastic processes in which line segments or lines, which represent roads, are randomly placed and their placement is independent of their ranks. Second, under these stochastic processes, this paper derives the expected value and variance of i) the number of intersections between roads of different ranks; and ii) the distance from an arbitrary point to the nearest highest-ranked road through two kinds of routes. Using these expected values, the intersection index and the detour index are proposed, and it is shown that these indicators are useful for evaluating the geometrical hierarchy of a network. As calculation of these indices is laborious, an efficient computational method is developed, and its application to an actual example is described.     

Was Lacquer the Key Ingredient for Luxurious Jinyin Pingtuo Products in the Tang Dynasty of China (AD 618–907)?

Jinyin pingtuo is one of the most sumptuous decorative methods applied on ‘lacquered' objects described in Tang dynasty literatures. Two Tang dynasty objects, a silver bowl and a bronze mirror, in the British Museum collection said to be made by this technique, were scientifically examined to confirm the application of the technique. Although the metal décors levelled with the rest of the surfaces on these objects suggested the application of the pingtuo method, lacquer, a major ingredient of this technique, was not identified by Py (HMDS)-GC–MS in any of the four samples analysed. The results question the use of lacquer in the pingtuo technique as usually described. The detection of shellac and oil in the bronze mirror aligns with other studies on similar objects, whereas proteinaceous materials as main ingredient of the decorative layers of the silver bowl, appear less usual. Further comparative study by scientific analysis of similar objects in other museum collections or from excavations is required to help better understand the use of lacquer in ancient China.     

壁画的生物腐蚀与防护研究进展

近年来生物因素对壁画的腐蚀破坏作用受到了众多文物保护工作者的重视,针对壁画生物腐蚀的防护研究取得了可喜的成果。本文从可以造成壁画损害的生物因素出发,综述近年来壁画生物腐蚀研究的成果,分别从小型动物、昆虫、植物、微生物以及游客五个方面阐述对壁画的影响,并讨论了进行生物腐蚀防护的措施和研究方向:对小型动物,使用一些物理性的防护措施,应成为有害动物防护研究的重点;对昆虫,防治重点是减少昆虫的植物性食物,昆虫中存在的捕食关系也是限制昆虫种群数量的一个新的突破口;对微生物,一些具有抑菌效果的无机材料或许可成为生物杀菌剂的替代品;对植物,有害植物的清除技术的提高和有益植物的筛选和应用需要进一步研究;对游客,建立人工复制的壁画或者设立数字影像代替原有文物壁画供人们参观,是目前一条行之有效的措施。本综述成果可为以后的壁画保护工作提供理论指导。