Disentangling long bones of foxes (Vulpes vulpes and Alopex lagopus) from arctic archaeological sites

To discern the presence of two anatomically close species within an archaeological assemblage is always a problem for the analyst. A particularly interesting case is the distinction between the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), which is often determined using non-rigorous criteria and producing results that must be regarded with caution. Classical methods for separating these two species and determining sexual dimorphism, and eventually the sex ratio, such as analyses using uni- and bivariate plots, are based on arbitrarily fixed limits between sexes. In this text, a more robust statistical method termed mixture analysis (MA) is used to determine the species of limb bones from foxes. First, the MA is applied to a sample of each species using metric data taken from a collection of present-day fox skeletons. Afterwards, the MA is applied to archaeological samples dated to the Dorset period and retrieved from the Tayara site (near Salluit, South Hudson Strait, Nunavik). The results clearly demonstrate that the greatest length (GL) of long bones, especially the humerus and tibia, is the best measurement for distinguishing the species, followed by the distal breadth and the proximal breadth; and that GL is better suited for sexing foxes. The results of MA applied to the Tayara site collection lead to the conclusion that the red fox is present along with the arctic fox among the assemblage, and that there is no fox body size change during the last two millennia in the Eastern Arctic.     

On some remains of dog (Canis familiaris) from the Mesolithic shell-middens of Muge,Portugal

The dog has a unique relationship with humans. This is demonstrated by the number of breeds that exist today and the important role that dogs play in human society. The archaeological record also shows that this relationship began long ago when groups of hunter–gatherers domesticated the wolf probably in several parts of the globe.     

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and banana (Musa sp.) microfossils in deposits from the Kona Field System,Island of Hawaii

Analysis of plant microfossils (pollen, phytoliths, starch grains and xylem cells) was carried out on 12 soil samples from a variety of pre-contact archaeological features in South Kona within a portion of what has been termed the Kona Field System, on the Island of Hawaii. The oldest radiocarbon ages of the sampled deposits are 1300–1625 AD and 1310–1470 AD. The pollen and phytolith evidence suggests a change from more to less trees and shrubs in the area as a result of human activity. We found phytoliths of banana (Musa sp.) leaves in most and starch grains and xylem cells of tuberous roots of c.f. sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) in all of the samples, suggesting that the sampled features were associated with these crops and that both crops were cultivated intensively within the study area. Higher concentrations (volumetric) of starch and xylem in samples from older deposits suggest that cultivation was more intensive then. The apparent absence of starch and xylem remains of other tuberous crops archaeologically identified elsewhere in Polynesia suggests that tuberous cropping within the study area was mono-specific.     

Roman agriculture in the conventus Bracaraugustanus (NW Iberia)

A review of archaeobotanical data, together with new, still unpublished data, from Roman sites in conventus Bracaraugustanus suggests the Romanization of the northwest Iberia brought little changes to the agricultural strategies of local communities in indigenous-type settlements. The main crops remain the same as in the Iron Age: Triticum aestivum/durum, Panicum miliaceum, Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare, Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccum and T. aestivum subsp. spelta, Avena and Vicia faba. The first secure reference for the cultivation of Secale cereale in the region comes from a Roman context, suggesting that it was introduced in this period, although it probably remained a minor crop.     

Assessing the reliability of criteria used to identify postcranial bones in sheep, Ovis, and goats, Capra

Criteria developed to distinguish between selected postcranial elements of sheep and goats are evaluated using modern specimens from the collections of the Field Museum of Natural History, the National Museum of Natural History, and the Museum of Anthropology and the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. Elements considered are: the distal humerus, proximal and distal radius, distal tibia, distal metapodials, astragalus, calcaneus, and the first and second phalanx. This evaluation includes an assessment of 1385 elements from 49 goat and 84 modern sheep skeletons. It also includes a blind test on elements drawn from 20 specimens taken by six analysts with differing levels of experience. Overall, the criteria evaluated are highly reliable, especially in goats and only slightly less so in sheep. A major exception is the distal tibia, where diagnostic criteria tested proved substantially less reliable than other criteria evaluated here. Strongly positive results were also obtained when the sample was partitioned by sex, domestic status, and age. Results of the blind test show some variability depending on the level of experience of the analyst, underscoring the need for training and access to adequate modern reference collections before attempting to apply these criteria to archaeological assemblages. The results of this assessment stand in stark contrast to those obtained in an earlier assessment of the reliability of criteria used to distinguish between mandibles and mandibular teeth of sheep and goats. In all but a few teeth, dental criteria proved to be much less reliable, especially in goats. They were also significantly less reliable in the identification of both younger and older animals. Unlike dental criteria, there are no biases introduced by variable reliability of postcranial criteria that distort taxon-specific harvest profiles based on long-bones.     

Distribution parameters of guanaco (Lama guanicoe), pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) and marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus) in Central Argentina: Archaeological and paleoenvironmental implications

In this paper we use non-ambiguous collections and sightings data from the 18th century to generate potential distribution models of three species of South American ungulates. These ungulates (Lama guanicoe -guanaco-; Ozotoceras bezoarticus -pampas deer- and Blastoceros dichotomus -marsh deer-) have different and specific environmental requirements. Through MaxEnt software, twenty-two environmental variables that characterize the distribution area of each species are defined. Once the models are generated, they are compared with the faunal associations found at Late Holocene archaelogical sites in order to infer paleoenvironmental conditions. We also discuss the role played by humans in the faunal associations which are "anomalous" or inconsistent with those models, like the spatial overlap of guanaco and marsh deer.     

Chemical characterisation of anthro-technosols from Bronze to Middle Age in Bologna (Italy)

The aim of this research was the understanding of a peculiarly expanded soil sequence in Bologna (i.e., Roman Bononia, Etruscan Felsina), one of the most important archaeological poles for Etruscan colonisation and settlement in northern Italy. The uppermost part of the chronological sequence dating from the Bronze Age up to medieval and modern times was analysed for the first time from geochemical and pedological viewpoints. The integration of archaeological, stratigraphical and pedological data supported by soil chemical analysis, a fundamental key for reconstructing a correct evolutionary sequence, made it possible to recognise seventeen buried Soil Units (ancient Technosols, Anthrosols and Cambisols) characterised by different kinds and degrees of intensity of anthropogenic influence. In some cases, the results show a relatively severe element concentration (Cu, Sn) mainly characterising the Iron Age (Etruscan and Villanovan) stratigraphic units, representing an ancient industrial pollution linked to local dispersal of melting activity dump products generated in near-site surrounding areas. Therefore, a comparison was possible between natural blank and anthropogenically polluted geochemical values for some local soils.     

Assessing the reliability of criteria used to identify mandibles and mandibular teeth in sheep, Ovis, and goats, Capra

Criteria developed to distinguish between the mandibles and mandibular teeth of sheep and goats are evaluated using modern specimens from the collections of the National Museum of Natural History and the Field Museum of Natural History. Certain teeth prove to be quite reliable in this regard (dP3, P3, P4). Other dental elements, however, are not reliable and should not be used in dental based identifications of these closely related species (dP4, M1, and mandibular bones). Overall, the identification of sheep dentition using these criteria is more reliable than it is for goats. However, the generally greater likelihood of incorrect identification of goat teeth and mandibles means that specimens identified as sheep are likely to contain high proportion of misidentified goats. Both the proportion of remains that can only be classified as ‘Ovis-Capra’ and the proportion of incorrectly identified teeth and mandibular bones varies with age, with identifications of younger and older animals less reliable than those of animals in the 1.5–6 year age range. Reliability of identifications increases when more criteria and more elements are used. Identifications based on whole mandibles with complete tooth rows are quite reliable. However, the proportion of specimens likely to be classified as ‘Ovis-Capra’ also increases in whole mandible identifications, especially in goats. Systematic differences in the proportions of indeterminate and incorrect identifications have a significant impact on species-level dentition-based harvest profiles. Recommendations are made for the use of dentition and long bone based harvest profiles in the study of sheep and goat exploitation strategies.     

Archaeological data on the exploitation of the goose barnacle Pollicipes pollicipes (Gmelin, 1790) in Europe

Barnacles of the species Pollicipes pollicipes are crustaceans that nowadays live on wave-beaten rocky substrates in the intertidal and low-shore zones on the coasts of Atlantic Europe and North Africa. At the present time, the exploitation of this species is profitable, especially in northern Spain where this sea-food is highly valued, as well as expensive. However, the gathering of this resource, which is carried out manually by the percebeiros or “goose barnacle fishers” entails great risks.     

Uxores, ancillae and dominae: women in thirteenth-century Hungary in the Register of Várad

Women’s history for Árpád-era Hungary (1000–1301) has generally been restricted to legal issues and the royal court. This study addresses these deficiencies by examining women in the Register of Várad in regard to three areas of investigation: marriage practices and the involvement of the Church, access women had to property and the access women had to authority. Evidence from the register indicates that by the thirteenth century, ecclesiastical ideas regarding marriage were barely making themselves felt. Ideas of consent and even the indissolubility of marriage were at times unimportant. Though priests were occasionally present at marriages, their role was not decisive. Women had three primary means of obtaining property. They could receive gifts or dower on the event of their wedding, and they could receive a portion of the patrimony. This inheritance was termed the quarta filialis as it amounted to no more than one-quarter of the father’s property. These gifts came under the control of the woman’s husband, and she could not access them until his death. Widowhood combined with guardianship of a minor son could allow women to exert considerable power and, just as elsewhere in Latin Europe, women’s access to public and private authority most approximated that of men’s as a widow. Not all women, of course, had access to such power. The Register of Várad shows numerous instances of women slaves who were under the complete control of their master.     

Hydraulic structures of the Roman Mithraeum house in Augusta emerita, Spain

This paper deals with some of the hydraulic structures of Augusta Emerita (Mérida, Spain), specifically those found in the Mithraeum House. In particular, we describe and characterise the hydraulic mortars and coatings of the viridarium water channel. The recipient of the channel was covered with two hydraulic mortars and a finishing coating. Hydrated lime was used as binder. Calcite grains with different morphology have been observed in the mortars studied. The siliceous aggregate was composed of quartz, mica and feldspars. Ceramic fragments, which were added to the mortar to improve its hydraulic properties, were composed of quartz, mica, iron oxides, anorthite and an amorphous phase; aluminium-iron silicates were used as raw materials for their manufacture. We discuss the interactions between the hydrated lime and the surface of the ceramics in the mortars.     

Building materials from Thamusida (Rabat,Morocco): a diachronic local production from the Roman to the Islamic period

A total of 67 bricks and tiles found in different archaeological contexts during excavations at Thamusida have been investigated here. The first analysed set consists of 27 bricks found in the area of an Islamic ceramic workshop, which was active at Thamusida from the 8th century onwards. The second set of 40 bricks and tiles was found mostly in situ. They date to the Roman occupation of the site (1st-3rd century AD). Thirteen of them bear different types of stamps. In addition, two types of clay (7 samples) from the surrounding area were analysed as reference for the materials used in the local ceramic production. The samples were investigated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence. The results allowed reconstructing two local productions of building materials: one during Roman and one during Islamic times, both using local grey tirs (without any manipulation or temper additions) as raw materials. Imports were further identified, tracing both short- and medium-range trade connections. Banasa could be addressed as a likely production site of bricks stamped QAP and APP, while the bay of Tangiers should be indicated as a likely provenance of bricks stamped C∞ and HADRIAVG.     

The (Ir)relevance of the Aside in Golden Age Drama

The professionalization of public theatre in late sixteenth-century Spain transformed the public street drama of playwrights and actors such as Lope de Rueda into an activity whose survival and success depended on ticket sales and attendance. It is within this context that the aside became one of the most popular dramatic techniques of Spain's Golden Age theater. This article seeks to answer two questions about the aside: (1) Do Golden Age playwrights utilize the aside in the same manner? and (2) Does the subgenre of a comedia dictate the use of a particular category of aside? I propose to answer these questions, focusing in particular on the different ways that the following comedias utilize the aside to transform the audience from mere spectators to active accomplices of what they witness on stage: Calderón de la Barca's El alcalde de Zalamea (comedia de honor), Antonio Mira de Amescua's El esclavo del demonio (comedia hagiográfica), and Tirso de Molina's El burlador de Sevilla (comedia moral).     

Endangered species,archaeology, and stable isotopes: huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) isotopic ecology in central-western Patagonia (South America)

The management and conservation of animal species should be based upon a long-term analysis that considers its geographical distribution and feeding patterns. The study of carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes on skeletal remains provides a quantitative approach to the paleodietary reconstructions and constitutes a potent tool for comparing behavioral aspects of the fauna. In this paper we present the first set of isotopic values for modern and archaeological samples of Huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) from the forests of Central-western Patagonia, Chile. Contrary to initial expectations, our analysis indicates that there is no evidence of an important incidence of the canopy effect on the δ¹³Ccollagen values, which we suggest is due to an ecological selection that drives the huemul to focus its predation on open sectors within the forest. On the other hand, a wide range of δ¹⁵Ncollagen values for huemul was verified. This could reflect the N impoverishment of the forest soils and provide an interesting ecological indicator. The long-term information offered by the archaeological record provides the necessary context for decision-making conducive towards the preservation of Hippocamelus bisulcus in Patagonia.     

Ancient DNA of the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) from Rapa Nui (Easter Island)

We report analysis of ancient mitochondrial DNA sequences from nine archaeological specimens (8 femura and 1 incissor) of Rattus exulans excavated from Anakena Beach Dune on Rapa Nui. Sequence of a 239-base-pair fragment of the hypervariable mitochondrial control region reveals a single mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence of all samples corresponding to the R9 haplotype prevalent in East Polynesia. This suggests a single or very limited introduction of Rattus exulans to the island. Rapa Nui, like other remote islands of Polynesia, remained effectively isolated following colonization.     

Examining dispersal mechanisms for the translocation of chicken (Gallus gallus) from Polynesia to South America

DNA sequencing and radiocarbon dates from the archaeological site of El Arenal-1 (Arauco Peninsula, south central Chile) suggest that Polynesians may have introduced chicken (Gallus gallus) to South America prehistorically (A.D. 1300–1420). The Chilean specimen identified has the exact same amplified mtDNA pattern as samples recovered from archaeological sites in Samoa and Tonga, but is only one base different from prehistoric chicken samples from Tonga (n = 1), Niue (n = 1), Easter Island (n = 1 of 6), and Hawai'i (n = 1). To examine the possible dispersal mechanisms of chicken between Polynesian islands and the Americas, we conducted computer simulations of seafaring from these six island groups and the Tuamotus, as well as return voyages. Simulation results from sailed vessels suggest that in certain months, landfall on the Pacific Coast of South America from Samoa and Tonga was fairly successful at around 40% (particularly in March for the former and January/February for the latter). For Niue, sailed vessels were 21% successful in January with only 2% success in December. Sailed vessels from the Tuamotus (a proxy for closer island groups to the west with evidence for chicken such as the Cook Islands) were successful in January and December, with 15% and 23% of the vessels making landfall in South America. Vessels sailing from all simulations heading east from Easter Island resulted in landfall. Hawai'i had only a 1% success rate if sailing in January, but high numbers of vessels reached southern Mexico and Central America in August and September. Most landfalls occurred much farther north than Chile, in Ecuador and Peru. Unsuccessful voyages from all of the islands other than Easter Island and Hawai'i often made landfall on islands to the east. Return voyages from Chile were not possible or extremely rare during most times of the year. Overall, seafaring simulations suggest that Polynesians may not have initially landed in close proximity to El Arenal-1—contemporaneous or even earlier archaeological evidence of translocated chicken remains may indeed be found further north. In addition, if Polynesians found it difficult or impossible to return to their homeland, the possibility exists that co-mingling between Polynesians and South American groups resulted in offspring that carried an admixture of genetic traits.     

Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) den use and taphonomy in the Masai Mara National Reserve,Kenya

Hyena taphonomy is of great importance to studies of hominid evolution, since these carnivore taxa have the highest potential both to produce large osseous assemblages and to modify existing hominid-accumulated assemblages throughout the Old World. The three extant hyena species (brown: Parahyaena brunnea; striped: Hyaena hyaena; and spotted: Crocuta crocuta) are all significant bone collectors and modifiers. Spotted hyenas generally have the lowest potential to accumulate osseous remains, and the rate of accumulation varies based upon the type of den. The present research examines the remains accumulated by spotted hyenas in Masai Mara Cave, Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. The contents of this den were collected twice by the authors, with an 11-year span interceding. The taphonomic signatures of spotted hyena interaction with bone are presented, including species and skeletal element representation, breakage patterns, tooth marks, tooth puncture, edge polish, and gastric corrosion. Other taphonomic factors examined include rodent gnawing and weathering stage. The cave den assemblage was accumulated at a rate of 30.4 identified specimens and a minimum of 4.1 prey individuals per year. In addition, the osseous remains accumulated by spotted hyenas at multiple burrow dens within the Reserve were examined for taxonomic representation and multiple taphonomic parameters. Rates of accumulation at this type of den tend to be very low, due to differential usage by spotted hyenas and the more ephemeral nature of earthen dens.     

Variation in collagen stable nitrogen values in black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus) in relation to small-scale differences in climate,soil, and topography

Longstanding observations about the relationship between increasing aridity and ¹⁵N enrichment in mammalian collagen values have led to an interest in their use as a paleoclimatic marker. Here we report on variability in collagen nitrogen values from five modern and two archaeological samples of black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus) from the eastern Great Basin of the United States (N = 178 individuals). Nitrogen δ¹⁵N values were highly variable within all samples. Modern samples showed significant differences despite similarities in average annual precipitation and temperature. Archaeological samples were indistinguishable from each other or from modern samples taken from the same area despite independent evidence for differences in precipitation for the two prehistoric periods considered. Differences between modern samples were most strongly associated with soil characteristics. We discuss these results in light of their relationship with topography and vegetation and highlight their implications for archaeological applications of stable nitrogen analyses in several contexts.     

Taphonomy of the bones of rodents consumed by Andean hog-nosed skunks (Conepatus chinga, Carnivora,Mephitidae) in central Argentina

The Andean hog-nosed skunks (Conepatus chinga) are generalized consumers. Rodents are a substantial part of their diet. In order to learn about the effects of this predator on the bones of the prey they consume, the bone remains from scats collected in La Pampa, Argentina, were analyzed from a taphonomic point of view. Analysis confirms that C. chinga produces severe destruction of bone remains, mainly during the chewing process. This allows inclusion of this predator in the category of extreme modifier of the bones of its prey. Data presented here and their interpretation provide criteria to identify the intervention of this predator in archaeological and paleontological sites.     

Neolithic Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) from the Island of Gotland show early contacts with the Swedish mainland

Previous research probing early migrations and contacts in the Baltic Sea area is characterized by the analysis of different chronologies and subsistent strategies on all sides of the Sea. Several studies performed on artifact typology, ceramics, grave rituals and physical anthropology ended with varying results. Although the question of human origins remains inconclusive, in this study, we rely on the phylogeography of an animal associated with humans to elucidate findings regarding prehistoric human migration and contacts.Hedgehogs, along with other fauna on Gotland, were brought over to the island by humans. We examined hedgehog mitochondrial DNA from the Pitted Ware Culture (Middle Neolithic). The genetic signatures of the animals on the island were investigated to determine the animal’s origin.From the 23 bones originally examined, twelve bones from all five locations studied yielded reliable results and resembled published extant Erinaceus europaeus sequences from Sweden, Norway and Denmark. We postulate that a western heritage for the Neolithic hedgehogs on Gotland indicates early human contact with the Swedish mainland.