Critical reassessment of putative Acheulean Porosphaera globularis beads

Excavations at Acheulean sites in northern Europe at the end of the 19th century have yielded fossil sponges belonging to the Late Cretaceous species Porosphaera globularis. The spherical morphology of these fossils, their small size, and the presence of a natural complete perforation in their center have led some archaeologists to interpret them as the oldest known beads. Others argue that the presence of these fossils at archaeological sites is due to natural processes. Re-examination of material collected during the 19th century has recently revived the bead interpretation. We tested the bead hypothesis by analyzing 13 samples of Porosphaera from nine sites in Britain and France. We conducted morphometric and microscopic analyses on specimens recovered from archaeological sites (n = 349), a natural geological sample, which was collected directly from Cretaceous strata (n = 352), and a sample from a Bronze Age burial (n = 43). Reappraisal of contextual data shows that the association of these finds with Acheulean artifacts is uncertain. Our results show that archaeological specimens are significantly different in size and perforation pattern from those of the natural geological sample. This may be due to size-sorting caused by sedimentary processes, size-selection by Palaeolithic people or by 19th century collectors. Modifications of the fossils' natural shape were detected on a few specimens in the form of localized abrasions and microchipping along the hole margins. A single specimen displays a facet close to the hole produced by grinding. The surfaces of these features exhibit a hue lighter than that observed on the remainder of the specimens indicating that they may be recent in origin and due to post-excavation and preservation treatment. However, this seems contradicted, for some specimens from Bedford, by the fact that according to Smith, W.G. [1884. On a Palaeolithic floor at North-East London. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 13, 357–384] the specimens bearing microchipping and abrasions were found by him and “not touched or manipulated by the workmen”. We conclude that new excavations of these sites, involving systematic screening of sediments, are needed in order to attempt to solve the Porosphaera “mystery”.     

Radiocarbon age determinations of fossil Margaritifera auricularia (Spengler) from the River Thames in West London

In the early 1900s shells of a large freshwater mussel, Margaritifera auricularia (Spengler), were discovered in calcreted gravel dredged from the channel of the Thames at several sites between Mortlake and Battersea in west London. These specimens were said to have been associated with Neolithic polished stone axes, supposedly as food remains. M. auricularia is now extinct in Britain, but it has been reported living in several large rivers in southern Europe although apparently not in recent years. Three radiocarbon dates of 4140±50, 4340±45 and 4860±40 bp have been obtained from Thames specimens, supporting a Neolithic age for these shells. The theory that the shells represent debris from imported human food is discounted and it is considered more likely that M. auricularia was actually living in the Thames in Neolithic times. Its extinction in Britain should be seen as part of a general recession during the Post-glacial, as revealed by fossil occurrences to the north and east of its present-day range.     

A new find of brown bear (Ursus arctos) from Star Carr and other finds in the late glacial and post glacial of Britain and Denmark

A vertebra of a Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) is described from the Mesolithic settlement Star Carr. This is the first record of the species from the site. The presence of Brown Bear in a Preboreal/Boreal deposit is an important addition to the early Mesolithic fauna of Britain. A comparison with contemporary Danish material shows that the bone from Star Carr falls within the wide size range of the Danish subfossil Brown Bear. In Denmark the species decreases in number from Boreal to Atlantic time, and finds are extremely scarce in Britain during the same time interval. This is probably due to the major eustatic sea level rise, which isolated Britain and Sjælland, preventing new immigration, and to vegetational changes restricting the preferred habitats of the Brown Bear.     

On the occurrence of the scimitar-toothed cat, Homotherium latidens (Carnivora; Felidae), at Kents Cavern,England

Teeth of Homotherium latidens recovered from late Pleistocene sediments, Kents Cavern, England have long been the source of controversy. H. latidens is conspicuously absent from other late Pleistocene cave deposits in Britain, and is widely thought to have been extirpated from the region during the isotope stage 10 glacial period. Here we present high spatial resolution analyses of fluorine and uranium uptake profiles in teeth of three species from the same cave. The H. latidens tooth is clearly distinguished from the unambiguously provenanced Late Pleistocene hyaena and Middle Pleistocene cave bear teeth. These results are consistent with the theory that the H. latidens teeth originated at an exogenous location, were probably transported to Kents Cavern as Palaeolithic trade goods, and were buried in Kents Cavern in Palaeolithic times.     

Potential vegetation markers – analytical pyrolysis of modern plant species representative of Neolithic SE Spain

A selection of plant species that may have been relevant for the Neolithic in the SW Mediterranean have been characterised with pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (pyrolysis–GC/MS) in search for molecular vegetation markers. Roots and aerial parts were analysed separately for the following species: Anthyllis cytisoides, Asphodelus cerasiferus, Brachypodium retusum, Cistus albidus, Cistus clusii, Dorycnium pentaphyllum, Ephedra fragilis, Juniperus oxycedrus, Juniperus phoenicea, Olea europaea, Phillyrea angustifolia, Pinus halepensis, Pistacia lentiscus, Quercus coccifera, Rhamnus lycioides, Rosmarinus officinalis, Smilax aspera and Stipa tenacissima; furthermore domesticated plants were analysed, including wheat (Triticum aestivum, Triticum dicoccum, Triticum monococcum, Triticum timopheevi and Triticum turgidum), barley (Hordeum vulgare and H. vulgare Hulled) and legumes (Lathyrus cicera, Lathyrus sativus, Lens culinaris, Pisum sativa, Vicia ervilia, Vicia faba and Vicia sativa). This resulted in 290 potential markers. In addition, the organic matter of surface soils under different vegetation cover has been analysed to test the presence of the potential markers in the soil. Forty-six of the potential markers were detected in the soil organic matter, of which part have not been reported before. The results may be useful for interpretation of the organic matter composition of soils and plant remains, which can be valuable in archaeology.     

Camelus from the upper pleistocene of Mount Carmel,Israel

A Camelus metapodial, found among the animal bones excavated by Garrod from the Levalloiso-Mousterian of the Tabun Cave (Mount Carmel, Israel), adds to the relatively small number of Camelus finds reported from the Pleistocene of the Near East. The mammal faunas associated with these finds suggest relatively dry open conditions, but not desert conditions. The Tabun specimen is of moderate size, in contrast to the very large Camelus from Far'ah II; two species of camel may thus have been present in the Near East during the Upper Pleistocene.     

Presence of the genus Cuon in upper Pleistocene and initial Holocene sites of the Iberian Peninsula: new remains identified in archaeological contexts of the Mediterranean region

The dhole (Cuon alpinus) has been documented on the Iberian Peninsula throughout the Middle and Upper Pleistocene in archaeological and palaeontological contexts. However, this is an uncommon species among the Iberian quaternary faunae as a whole. This paper focuses on the remains of the genus Cuon recovered in three different sites of the Iberian Mediterranean region and their morphological and osteometrical study. By comparing these with fourteen complete skeletons of Canis lupus, as well as with other remains of C. alpinus, we intend to highlight some anatomical and metrical differences between Cuon and Canis that, added to those already published, could be a functional base-line for the identification of this genus. The identification of this species is complex, especially in archaeological contexts, and in some cases the dhole has been identified as Canis or Canidae. Furthermore, this paper explores the chronology of the presence of the dhole in the Iberian Peninsula and the different contexts where these animals have been recovered from.     

Crane and vulture at an Italian Bronze Age site

Bones of a crane (probably Grus grus) and a large vulture have been found in middle Bronze Age levels of the southern Italian site of La Starza. It is suggested that these birds may have been hunted for their feathers. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A new Pliocene tree kangaroo species (Marsupialia,Macropodinae) from the Chinchilla Local Fauna,southeastern Queensland

A new species of very large tree kangaroo, Bohra wilkinsonorum, is described from a maxillary fragment from the Pliocene Chinchilla Sands of southeastern Queensland. Allocation to Bohra, which has previously been known from postcranial material only, is suggested on the basisof its similar size and stage of evolution to Bohra paulae. Both species of Bohra are plesiomorphic with respect to species of Dendrolagus, and are much larger than any known species of Dendrolagus. This new taxon from Chinchilla has expanded the tree kangaroo record from the Pliocene of southeastern Australia, supporting the hypothesis that the group originated in the late Miocene of ‘mainland’ Australia, finding refuge in north-eastern Queensland and New Guinea as climate became drier in the Quaternary. Fossil tree kangaroos are unknown from the Pliocene of Papua New Guinea where most living species now occur.     

The molecular palaeoecology of geese: identification of archaeological goose remains using ancient DNA analysis

The remains of six species of geese are commonly recovered from archaeological sites in Britain dating from the Saxon and later periods. However, identification of this material to species level is hampered by a lack of morphological variation and a large overlap in size. To address this issue we obtained DNA sequence data for a section of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene from modern samples of each species, and successfully identified several DNA markers for Branta species. No markers were found within the cytochrome b gene for the genus Anser. Ancient DNA techniques were then used to recover DNA from goose bones excavated from two archaeological sites. The DNA sequences enabled identification of Barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis) from one site and confirmed the presence of Anser species at another. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Early Carboniferous Siphonodella (Conodonta) faunas from eastern Australia

Early to Middle Tournaisian conodont faunas with Siphonodella from ten sections in eastern Australia, between Gloucester in New South Wales and Rockhampton in Queensland, may be referred to the following ‘standard’ zones; 1 sulcata, 2 upper duplicata, 3 sandbergi, 4 lower crenulata and 5 isosticha-upper crenulata, in ascending order. In eastern Australia the first occurrences of Gnathodus cuneiformis, G. delicatus, G. typicus and Protognathodus cordiformis, near the base of the lower crenulata zone, are significantly earlier than in Europe and North America. Consequently the base of the isosticha-upper crenulata zone in eastern Australia is defined by the first appearance of G. punctatus rather than that of G. delicatus. On the present evidence it is difficult to reconcile some brachiopod and conodont occurrences in the Early-Middle Tournaisian of eastern Australia.

Seventeen discrete conodont species are discussed, four of which are described informally: Dinodus sp. nov. A, Dinodus sp. nov. B, Pinacognathus sp. nov. A, and a species of Siphonodella transitional between S. cooperi and S. crenulata.     

Original Document

Excavations in 1963 established that the 50 acre hill-fort was permanently occupied from perhaps c. 390 B.C. until c. A.D. 75. Comparison of its four-post rectangular huts with other rectilinear buildings in Iron Age Britain is held to support the view that the oblong buildings at Credenhill were dwellings. On the basis of the density of such buildings at Croft Ambrey a population of about 4,000 is suggested for Credenhill, which is twice as large as any other Herefordshire hill-fort. Its size and centrality in an Iron Age region characterized by large univallate hill-forts, rectangular buildings and Group B1 stamped pottery makes it an obvious candidate for the role of capital of a territory that was broadly co-extensive with the modern county. It is suggested that the Iron Age inhabitants were the Decangi of Tacitus, conquered by Scapula in A.D. 48.     

Starch grain characterization of Prosopis chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz and P. flexuosa DC,and the analysis of their archaeological remains in Andean South America

The fruit (pods) of Prosopis (Fabaceae) are frequently recovered from pre-Hispanic Argentinian archaeological sites, suggesting that this genus was of importance in ancient economies in this region. Yet it is only recently that archaeobotanists have begun to carry out systematic research into this genus. Therefore many questions remain to be addressed concerning the food value of Prosopis fruit, and its potential contribution. This paper examines starch from the pods of two species, Prosopis flexuosa and Prosopis chilensis, for the purposes of describing and classifying their morphological features and biometrical parameters. Pods of both species were gathered from two extremes (northern and southern) of the Hualfín Valley, Catamarca, Argentina. Starch abundance is estimated and compared with that of Zea mays, an economically important plant with high concentrations of starch. This paper reveals that Prosopis pods contain very low amounts of starch compared to starch-rich edible species. Despite this, the recovery of Prosopis starch grains can be successfully used to assess archaeological tool uses. Prosopis starch grains were found to be highly variable in shape. Grain size ranged between 10 and 20 μm. Granule irregularity and the high birefringence under polarized light are two of the most important diagnostic features. No significant statistical differences were found in the structure (morphology, size and hilum) of the starch of the same species from both localities. Finally, the implications for the role of this plant in past societies are discussed.     

Morphometric and taphonomic analysis of granular ark (Anadara granosa) dominated shell deposits of Blue Mud Bay,northern Australia

Metrical analyses of complete mollusc shells have commonly been used to examine aspects of prehistoric mollusc demography, and by extension to investigate potential human exploitation of a variety of species. Recently it has been highlighted that several taphonomic processes, such as fragmentation, have the potential to introduce size bias into these archaeological samples, particularly towards smaller size classes, and thus the potential to significantly skew results of these metrical analyses. This is investigated here by deriving morphometric equations for the sand/mudflat bivalve Anadara granosa, a species prevalent in archaeological sites across northern Australia. A linear regression model based on a series of valve measurements, resulting in high coefficients of determination, demonstrates strong predictive power for size reconstruction. The effects of fragmentation on assemblages from two case study sites are then examined as a means of reviewing issues of differential size preservation, variation in mean valve size, and evaluating the strength of previous interpretations of intensive human exploitation in Blue Mud Bay. Based on these analyses it appears that A. granosa mean size is not significantly affected by fragmentation as other species described in the literature, and previous interpretations retain their validity.     

Characterization of dyes in ancient textiles from Yingpan,Xinjiang

In this paper we analyzed the natural dyes in well-preserved, ancient textiles from Yingpan, an important archaeological site on the Silk Road, using high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array and mass spectrometric detection. Dyes were removed from textile fibers using a soft extraction method (pyridine, water and oxalic acid). Two species of madder-type plants, Rubia tinctorum and Rubia cordifolia were identified as the dye sources in red and brown samples. We also were able to detect unusual flavonoid glycosides in yellow and green woolen yarns, although we have not been able to pinpoint with certainty a specific plant that may have been used to produce this dye(s). On the other hand, we found that yellow and green silk threads had been colored with protoberberine-type dyes, probably obtained from species of cork tree, Phellodendron spp., and/or other protoberberine producing plant. We propose that the textile dyes found at Yingpan reflect a merging of Eastern and Western practices and technologies during the 800-year period (206 BCE–618 CE) encompassing the early years of the Silk Road.     

Reappraisal of ‘chronospecies’ and the use of Arvicola (Rodentia,Mammalia) for biochronology

The water vole, genus Arvicola, is characterised by a broad geographic distribution throughout Europe and is widespread during the late Middle and Upper Pleistocene. This genus is used as a major biostratigraphic tool within the Quaternary. Specific determinations using the Schmelzband-Differenzierung-Quotient or SDQ have identified many chronospecies within the fossil species Arvicola cantiana (Hinton, 1910). As SDQ calculation remains limited, this study reappraises the Arvicola genus in terms of morphodiversity and morphospace using outline analysis which takes into account the tooth as a whole. Outline analysis suggests that one single species of Arvicola, A. cantiana, was present during the Pleistocene. This species shows great variability with no trends or patterns in morphospace. Thus, these results call into question the reliability of SDQ for specific determinations and throw doubt on the biochronological framework based on Arvicola.     

Morphometric analysis of limpets from an Iron-Age shell midden found in northwest Portugal

The present work reports an analysis of a shell midden found in Terroso hillfort, an important Iron-Age oppidum located in northwest Portugal. The midden was dated from the latest phase of occupation of the hillfort, between the Ist century BC and the Ist century AD (Roman period), and contained 684 well-preserved Patella shells. The identification of archaeological shells was carried out comparing them with modern specimens collected in two shores in the neighborhood of the hillfort. The identification of modern shells was based on radula pluricuspid teeth and shell morphology. Relative abundance of Patella species in the Terroso midden was different from modern populations. Archaeological shells were dominated by Patella vulgata, but Patella intermedia was the most abundant species in modern populations. Dimensions of archaeological shells were very different from modern populations. Shell length range and variability in archaeological shells were lower than in the modern populations. Log height vs. length plots for archaeological shells were different from modern populations. Patella shells from Terroso midden was significantly taller then modern specimens. These differences between archaeological shells and modern populations could be due to environmental changes, namely an increase in wave action and intensity. These harsher costal conditions could have resulted from an alteration in the morphology of the coast, caused by a rise in the mean sea level from 2000 years BP to the present. Alternatively or additionally, the observed differences can be related to gathering strategies. Archaeological shells could have been selected by size, and collected preferentially at high shore and in sheltered sites.     

Ashes to ashes. Fuelwood selection in Roman cremation rituals in northern Gaul

To analyse fuelwood collection strategies in Roman funerary rituals in northern Gaul, a large number of charcoal fragments from Roman cremation graves has been identified. The wide variety of taxa found suggests that no particular taxa have been avoided. Also no significant differences have been found between the charcoal assemblages of different types of graves and between graves belonging to different types of settlements. On the other hand, comparison with the charcoal assemblages from Roman refuse deposits, reflecting domestic fuel use, shows an overrepresentation of Quercus sp., Alnus sp. and Fagus sylvatica, and a much lower taxonomic variety in the cremation graves. This is believed to be the consequence of functional rather than ritually or symbolically oriented fuelwood selection strategies.     

Cattle mobility in prehistoric Britain: strontium isotope analysis of cattle teeth from Durrington Walls (Wiltshire,Britain)

An important role has been envisaged for cattle during the Neolithic period in Britain based on their prominence within the faunal assemblages of the period as a whole. The relative ease with which cattle can be moved over long distances and the requirement to provide ample pastureland leads almost inescapably to the consideration of prehistoric cattle movement. This paper presents the results of an investigation into the mobility of Late Neolithic cattle at the well-known site of Durrington Walls, Wiltshire. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values from cattle (Bos taurus) teeth were compared to local vegetation samples, well established values from archaeological material and to known geological conditions in order to determine whether individual animals were raised in areas with similar geological conditions as those found at the site (i.e. chalkland), and therefore whether the animals were of allochthonous or autochthonous origin. In total, 13 mandibular molars from Durrington Walls were analysed. Two of the animals included in the study were certainly raised under conditions similar to those found in the vicinity of Durrington Walls, but the other 11 provided signatures so distinct from that found locally that they could not have been raised on chalkland. From the results it is suggested that cattle were brought to the site from a variety of grazing areas in different parts of Britain. The implication of these findings is that the movement of cattle was undertaken during the Late Neolithic, and that in a number of cases substantial distances must have been traversed in order for animals to reach the site. In addition, the study provided valuable information for the interpretation of the site, which attracted people from a variety of regions, probably for ceremonial reasons.     

Holocene archaeological evidence of extinct and very rare British Scarabaeoidea

Abstract

The analysis of British Holocene insect assemblages has discovered nine species of scarabaeoid dung beetles which are now extinct in Britain and two more that are extremely rare. Some of these species had been suspected as native by early 19th century entomologists but doubt had been cast on specimens in old collections of British Coleoptera. Eight are dung feeders which, although they would have initially been favoured by clearance for pasture and a possible warm climate episode in the middle Bronze Age, subsequently declined as a result of increasing cultivation and a slight cooling of the summer climate. The other three species probably became extinct due to human-induced habitat loss.