SWEDISH EXPLORERS,IN-SITU KNOWLEDGE,AND RESOURCE-BASED BUSINESS IN THE AGE OF EMPIRE

The period from 1870 to 1914 plays a unique role in the history of natural resource exploration and extraction. This article analyses, from a Swedish viewpoint, the connections between two actor categories of special importance in this context: scientific-geographical explorers and industrial actors. The article examines their activities in three broadly defined regions: the Arctic, Russia, and Africa. We show that the Swedes generally had far-reaching ambitions, on par with those of the large imperial powers. In some cases, notably in Africa, Sweden was not able to compete with the larger imperial powers; but in other cases, such as the exploration of the Arctic – from Spitsbergen to Siberia – and the industrial exploitation of coal at Spitsbergen and petroleum in Russia’s colonial periphery, Swedish actors played a leading role, in competition with players from the larger European nations. Our paper shows that scientific exploration and industry were closely linked, and that foreign policy also influenced the shaping of these links. We distinguish different types of knowledge produced by the Swedish actors, pointing to local, situated knowledge as the most important type for many resource-based businesses, although modern, scientific knowledge was on the increase during this period.     

THE METAPHORICAL VISION IN THE LITERARY LANDSCAPE OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

Despite a considerable amount of research in literary geography since the 1970s, particularly upon 19th-century rural novels, relatively little attention has been focused on Elizabethan literature, drama, and poetry. This paper addresses the literary landscape of William Shakespeare with specific reference to the use of the body-landscape metaphor in his dramatic work. It is undertaken in the belief that by conducting this type of investigation we are not merely exploring an intriguing aspect of the literary landscape of a highly creative Elizabethan, but we are also improving our understanding of the environmental perceptions of the culture in which these plays were written. The study begins by exploring the origins of this particular metaphorical vision, and then examines how Shakespeare employs this concept by superimposing elements of the celestial and the terrestrial landscape onto the human body and vice versa. Research reveals that although Shakespeare makes extensive use of this metaphorical device, some important types of body-landscape metaphors are absent in his work, and possible reasons for this are explored. The study concludes by noting that although this way of understanding the world was later superseded by other metaphors, some interesting parallels can be drawn between the body-landscape metaphor employed by the Elizabethans and the more recent Gala hypothesis. Malgré le nombre considérable de recherches effectuées en géographie littéraire depuis les années 1970 et plus particulierèment dans le domaine des romans ruraux du 19^e siècle, les géographes se sont très peu intéressés à la littérature élisabéthaine ou au thAeatre et à la poésie. Cet article examine le paysage littéraire de William Shakespeare et plus particulièrement l'utilisation de la métaphore du corps comme paysage. Nous entre-prenons cette étude avec la conviction qu'en faisant ce genre de recherche, on n'explore pas seulement un côte fascinant du paysage littéraire d'un Elisabéthain hautement créatif mais que nous améliorons aussi notre compréhension des perceptions de I'environnement de la culture dans laquelle ces pieces ont ete icrites. Cette etude se penche tout d'abord sur les origines de cette vision metaphorique particuliere. Elle examine ensuite comment Shakespeare utilise ce concept en superposant des éléments des paysages célestes et terrestres au corps humain et vice-versa. L'étude démontre que malgré l'utilisation fréquente de cette figure métaphorique par Shakespeare, de nom-breuses formes de la métaphore du corps comme paysage sont absentes de son oeuvre et les raisons possibles de cette carence sont explorés. L 'étude s'acheve en notant que même si cette façon de comprendre I'univers a été plus tard remplacée par d'autrès métaphores, des interpretations paralleles inte-ressantes peuvent être faites entre la métaphore du corps comme paysage et I'hypothèse plus récente de Gaïa.     

THE WRITER YANGDRON:TIBETAN FEMALES AND MY VIEW OF LITERARY EXPRESSION ON TIBET

正Yangdron,a Tibetan female,graduated from the Chinese Department of Beijing University.Having joined the Association of Chinese Writers in 1997,her short stories won the Literary Creation Prize for Chinese Ethnic Minorities.Some of her works have been included by the Collection of Excellent Works of China's Contemporary Tibetan Writers,Tibet New Stories,and Listen to Tibet,and some were translated into English and published in the USA.In 1994,The Sexless Gods,the first novel written by     

1. CARL SCHMITT BETWEEN HISTORY AND MYTH

Carl Schmitt's work defines the history and theory of political myth. But analyzing it represents a challenge to historians and theorists alike. For many historians, Schmitt should be analyzed in his own context, whereas theorists study his writings without enough consideration of the specific context in which he conceived his texts. In this essay, I argue that Schmitt not only contributed to the fascist glorification of the mythical and its novel enactment as the driving force of fascism, but he also represents one of the most intriguing and influential interpreters of the political theory of myth, challenging in turn theories of democracy and the role of reason and secularism in historiography.     

NATIONAL IDENTITY IN THE VANQUISHED STATE: GERMAN AND JAPANESE POSTWAR HISTORIOGRAPHY FROM A TRANSNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

The defeat of Germany and Japan in 1945 required historians in both countries to reevaluate the past to make sense of national catastrophe. Sebastian Conrad's The Quest for the Lost Nation analyzes this process comparatively in the context of allied military occupation and the Cold War to reveal how historians in both countries coped with a discredited national history and gradually salvaged a national identity. He pays special attention to the role of social, discursive, and transnational contexts that shaped this process to highlight the different courses that the politics of the past took in postwar Germany and Japan. The picture that emerges of German and Japanese historiography and the respective attempts to come to terms with the past is at odds with the conventional narrative that usually praises West German historians and society for having come to terms with their dark past, as opposed to postwar Japan, which is usually regarded as having fallen short by comparison. There was in fact far more critical historiographical engagement with the past in Japan than in West Germany in the 1950s. Reasons for the divergent evolution of the politics of the past in Germany and Japan should not be sought in the peculiarities of postwar national history but rather in an entangled transnational context of defeat, occupation, and the Cold War, whose effects played out differently in each country. These conclusions and others reveal some of the opportunities and special challenges of comparative transnational history.     

THE TIME OF THE SELF AND THE TIME OF THE OTHER

What is time? This essay offers an attempt to think again about this oldest of philosophical questions by engaging David Hoy's recent book, The Time of Our Lives: A Critical History of Temporality, which proposes a “history of time‐consciousness” in twentieth‐century European philosophy. Hoy's book traces the turn‐of‐the‐century debate between Husserl and Bergson about the different senses of time across the various configurations of hermeneutics, deconstruction, poststructuralism, and feminist theory. For him, what is at stake in such a project is to distinguish between the scientific‐objective “time of the universe” and the phenomenology of human temporality, “the time of our lives.” Hoy's approach is to organize his book around the three tenses of time—past/present/future—and to view objective‐scientific time as derived from the more primordial forms of temporalizing lived experience that occur in our interpretation of time. In my reading of Hoy's work, I attempt to explore how “time” (lived, experiential, phenomenological) can be read not in terms of “consciousness” (Hoy's thematic), but in terms of the self's relationship with an Other. That is, my aim is less to establish a continental tradition about time‐consciousness, understood through the methods of genealogy, phenomenology, or critical theory, than it is to situate the problem of time in terms of an ethics of the Other. In simple terms, I read Hoy's project as too bound up with an egological interpretation of consciousness. By reflecting on time through the relationship to the Other rather than as a mode of the self's own “time‐consciousness,” I attempt to think through the ethical consequences for understanding temporality and its connection to justice.     

THE POLITICS OF DESPAIR AND THE CALLING OF HISTORY

What happens to history as a set of practices and intellectual protocols when the assumed subject of our historical narratives is not a product of the European Enlightenment? Such has been the question motivating much of Dipesh Chakrabarty's work for almost thirty years. This essay offers a largely chronological account of Chakrabarty's major works. It begins with his first book, published in 1989, which provided a culturalist account of working‐class history in Bengal. It then tracks his movement in the early 1990s toward a position positing radical disjuncture and even incommensurability between the worlds of Indian subalterns and Western moderns, and his subsequent attempts to soften and blur precisely this kind of disjuncture. Meditating on the problems posed by the experiences of subjects who did not live within the time of history led him to answer in the affirmative the question of whether there are experiences of the past that history could not capture. Soon thereafter, however, he drew back from the most extensive articulation of this claim, suggesting that the experiences of the non‐Enlightenment subject could function as a positive resource and not merely as the source of a profound and destabilizing critique. I argue here that this solution to the problem of incommensurability is not entirely satisfactory, for it relies implicitly on precisely the kinds of argumentative asymmetries of which his earlier analysis taught us to be wary. Chakrabarty himself, meanwhile, has continued to step further away from the radicalism of the early 1990s; his most recent book may be read as a defense of rationalist history in the face of contemporary threats posed by the rise of a politics of identity in India.     

THE RISE AND DECLINE OF THE TUTANKHAMUN-CLASS CHARIOT

Summary. The Tutankhamun-class chariot, the earliest high-performance machine, existed in its refined form for about five centuries. Eight complete vehicles have survived and support the argument that they surpass all monumental structures of the pharaohs in engineering sophistication. There is no evidence of chariot racing from that era, but these chariots have many technical features that imply a pedigree based on racing. Several elements hint of thoughtful invention, advanced physical modelling and experimentation, with results that sometimes drastically and favourably differ from our concepts of vehicle design. It is difficult for us to envision a substantially better chariot made with the ancient materials of construction even if we were to apply our most advanced formulas and methods. There are two major areas of chariot analysis from an engineering standpoint, and both are accessible to non-specialists. The complex suspension system of springs and shock absorbers has advantages in structural dynamics, ride quality and safety. An example of the latter is a dual-purpose anti-roll device. The chariots’ wheels have aircraft-like damage tolerance, and have fundamentally more perfect spokes and joints for carrying multi-axial loads than the wooden spokes of any classic car. This paper covers the essential technical features and historical perspectives of these chariots for archaeologists.     

THE CITY OF NICOMEDEIA AND THE GODDESS DEMETER

Bithynia is a region in the northwest of Anatolia bordered by the Black Sea （Pontus Euxeinos） to the north, the Dardanel Strait （Hellespontos） and Kocacay （Rhyndakos） to the west, and the Sakarya River （Sangarios） to the south. A point of the Asian continent extending towards Europe, Bithynia is surrounded by seas on its three sides and has a long shore. Nicomedeia, once the capital of Bithynia, is an important city due to its location. Since the gulf is gradually narrowing, it can easily be closed and defended. There are two routes from Nicomedeia. One leads alongside the shore towards the Marmara Sea, enabling the passage to the north and south or to the European shore across the peninsula.     

MYTHS AND MEANINGS OF IMMIGRATION AND THE METROPOLIS

A number of trends in recent immigration to Canada are discussed: the scale of contemporary movement; the transformation of national origins over the past generation; the diversity of entry classes and the lack of any singular immigrant condition; the remarkable contraction of immigrant destinations to a few large cities; the contribution of immigration to population growth and housing demand in these metropolitan areas; and the distinctive geography of the various entry classes, with higher-status arrivals disproportionately located in Vancouver. The remainder of the paper considers and rejects two common myths in the discussion of immigration: first, the myth of an immigrant underclass, and second, the myth of an immigrant overclass. Using research from Vancouver associated with the Metropolis Project, the first myth is challenged from an analysis of Census data that emphasizes the social context of immigrant life and upward mobility; the second myth is shaken by a qualitative methodology that reveals the unexpectedly fragile experience of a number of business immigrants. Certaines tendances relatives à l'immigration récente au Canada sont examinées: l'envergure des déplacements actuels, les changements dans l'origine nationale des immigrants au cours de la dernière génération, la diversité des catégories d'immigrants admis et, par conséquent, l'absence d'une seule condition pour tous, le fait que les immigrants choisissent essentiellement de s'établir dans quelques grandes villes, la croissance de la population et la demande en logement attribuables aux immigrants dans ces régions métropolitaines, et les choix géographiques distincts des immigrants selon leur catégorie à l'admission, comme c'est le cas de Vancouver, qui accueille un nombre disproportionné d'arrivants de statut élevé. Dans le reste de l'article, les résultats d'études effectuées dans le cadre du Projet Métropole permettent d'examiner puis de réfuter deux mythes communément associés à l'immigration au Canada: l'existence d'un sous-prolétariat et celle d'une classe dominante d'immigrants urbains. D'abord, l'existence d'un sous-prolétariat est rejetée suite à l'analyse de données tirées du recensement concernant le contexte social entourant les immigrants et la mobilité sociale ascendante de la plupart des nouveaux arrivants. Ensuite, une méthode qualitative met en lumière une découverte surprenante: la fragilité de l'expérience de la prétendue classe dominante – les immigrants qui travaillent dans le monde des affaires.     

THE POSITIONAL PRINCIPLE AND THE PRESSURE OF PLACE

A theoretical geographer introduces the concepts of the positional principle, defined as the relationship between properties of objects and their position in space, and of the pressure of place, defined as the force that strives to shift objects to an optimal location. In response to the pressure, the object (which may be a living being, group of people, settlement or economic installation) is compelled to migrate or, if it remains in place, it either will have to modify its functions to adapt to the environment or will deteriorate. The positional principle is reflected in any patterns of territorial zoning.