Understanding ceramic variability: an archaeometrical interpretation of the Classical and Hellenistic ceramics at Düzen Tepe and Sagalassos (Southwest Turkey)

Within the aim of contributing to the artisanal craft history at Sagalassos (SW-Turkey), an archaeometric programme including thin section analysis, ICP-MS and multivariate statistics was developed to define the variability on a provenance and/or technological scale of the Classical/Hellenistic ceramic assemblage of Sagalassos and Düzen Tepe. The obtained data were used to evaluate the extent and variation of local pottery production. Petrographic and geochemical analysis as a grouping technique proves to be conditional for documenting the variation in ceramic wares present on both archaeological sites. Elemental evidence supports local production activities between Classical and Hellenistic times, documenting a deliberate change in treatment of raw materials during the Late Hellenistic period in function of ware groups.     

HELLENISTIC GLAZED WARES FROM ATHENS AND SOUTHERN ITALY: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES AND IMPLICATIONS

The original intention of the project, conceived in the context of the British School at Rome's excavation and survey programme in the Bradano basin (based on Gravina) was to establish the composition patterns of Hellenistic glazed wares from sites in southern Apulia, and then to use these to trace the trading patterns of the area, against a control group of sherds from the Athenian Agora. It proved possible to distinguish Attic from Apulian sherds by their nickel and chromium content, and average-link-cluster-analysis by computer showed that Gnathian ware from Taranto could be distinguished from seven other south Italian groups, suggesting that speciality wares were made of clays from special beds. Because of the geological homogeneity of the area no further distinctions could be made, but some sherds were also analysed petrologically and by heavy mineral analysis, for a methodological comparison. The very homogeneous geology, coupled with the fineness of the wares showed these methods to be at the limits of their usefulness. Only very generalized conclusions could be drawn concerning the origin of the pottery from the petrological evidence; the micro-mineralogical data showed that interesting differences existed between pottery from the main Apulian sites, but these could equally have reflected natural variations occurring within fairly homogeneous clay deposits.     

Identification of Pigments in Hellenistic and Roman Funeral Figurines

Microsamples removed from funeral figurines, which were found in two Hellenistic (third to second centuries bc ) and two Roman (first to second centuries ac ) tombs in the centre of Thessaloniki, Greece, are investigated following a multi‐analytical approach. Polarized light microscopy (PLM), X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, micro‐Raman spectroscopy and high‐performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode array detector (HPLC–DAD) are employed to identify both inorganic and organic pigments. PLM is useful to reveal the combinations of the colourants, which are identified as follows. Red ochre, cinnabar, yellow ochre, Egyptian blue, carbon black, calcite, dolomite and quartz are identified using XRF and Raman spectroscopy. HPLC–DAD is used to identify the organic colourants, which are rarely detected in painted objects of the Hellenistic and Roman period. In particular, cochineal and madder are found in six samples extracted from Hellenistic figurines. This is the first study describing the unequivocal identification of cochineal in Hellenistic objects. Furthermore, madder is identified in one sample dated to the Roman period. Madder lakes detected in the samples contain high amounts of purpurin; alizarin is either not detected or detected in trace amounts.     

Using neutron activation analysis to identify scales of interaction at Kinet Höyük,Turkey

We use NAA to characterize a relatively large archaeological ceramic sample from the Late Bronze Age to Hellenistic phases of Kinet Höyük, a coastal Turkish site in the Gulf of Iskenderun at the northeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea. The geographic extent of local Kinet wares (how local is local?) is established through comparison with sediment samples across the Kinet hinterland. Four major compositional groups are identified: local and locally imported wares, imports from Cypriot, and presumed Western Anatolian and Aegean centers, and imports that appear relatively homogenous elementally but comprise typologically diverse ceramics with attributions that range from Cyprus to the coastal mainland. Comparison with other published NAA studies for this site reinforces the elemental evidence for local production, and underlines the need for caution when assuming local production always equates with local clays particularly for coastal sites. We propose that the chronological distribution of the local and non-local groups provides a useful political economic proxy. The study indicates systemic and widespread political disruption and marginalization at the transition to the Late Iron Age in this region.     

The Faragola Ceramic Collection: Ceramic Production,Consumption and Exchange in Seventh‐Century Apulia

A collection of 30 ceramic samples, 16 of coarse wares and 14 of fine painted wares, have been investigated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and neutron activation analysis. Further samples of clayey sediments, both locally outcropping and found within the settling tank, have been submitted to the same analytical techniques for comparison with the ceramic collection. The results demonstrated that local clayey sediments were used as received for the production of coarse wares. The same raw materials were sieved and/or refined by decantation for the production of fine painted wares, which, in fact, provided results that were perfectly comparable with those for the clayey raw materials found within the settling tank. The Faragola productions were distinguished from the neighbouring Apulian productions according to petrographic features (the presence of leucite‐bearing volcanic rocks and Mn‐rich wads) and their bulk chemical composition.     

The Concept of a Pottery Production Centre. An Archaeometrical Contribution from Ancient Sagalassos

In 1987 a potters' quarter was discovered to the east of the ancient town of Sagalassos (SW Turkey). A wide variety of ceramic products was manufactured locally, including a series of tableware (Sagalassos red slip ware). Following a late Hellenistic antecedent, mass production of this tableware started during the early Augustan period and lasted into the first half of the 7th century ad. This contribution aims at illustrating some of the technological and organizational choices made by the potters when mass production was initialized.     

Evidence for local,regional and interregional exchange networks on Failaka: Some remarks on late Islamic pottery from Kharaib al-Dasht

The site of Kharaib al-Dasht, located on the northern coast of Failaka, is a late Islamic settlement with an extensive fishing infrastructure. It has been excavated since 2013 by the Kuwaiti-Polish Archaeological Mission. The ceramic assemblage collected so far exceeds 18,000 fragments. The sherds underwent technological and typological analyses, which demonstrated a wide diversity of local common kitchen wares, consistent with the needs of households specialised in fishing. A considerable percentage of imported vessels was brought to Failaka from the Arabian Gulf and Persia, though Far Eastern luxury tableware was also attested. This paper demonstrates the socioeconomic role of Kharaib al-Dasht in the context of trade exchange on the microregional (Kuwait) and macroregional (the Gulf, South and Eastern Asia) scales in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.     

ROMAN POTTERY FROM AUGUSTA PRAETORIA (AOSTA,ITALY): A PROVENANCE STUDY

Forty-five sherds of Roman pottery, 21 terrae sigillutae and 24 common wares excavated in Augusta Praeroria, were analysed for 12 elements by atomic absorption and emission spectroscopy. Hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis, principal component analysis, and non-linear mapping were performed on the analytical data in order to classify the objects in groups which could account for different provenances; soft independent modelling of class analogy (SIMCA) and K nearest neighbours (KNN) were used for solving doubtful assignments. The classification results indicate that local productions of terra sigillatu can be easily distinguished from the imported ones, and that common wares have compositional patterns which differ from those of both local and imported terrae sigillatue.     

A Study of the Techniques Used to Make Laohudong Guan Ware in China in the Southern Song Dynasty

Through a combination of analysis and synthesis of Laohudong Guan ware shards from Hangzhou City in southern China, some new hypotheses concerning Guan ware manufacture can be proposed. These suggest that the complex microstructures seen in Guan ware glazes, and which contribute significantly to their jade‐like qualities, may owe much to layers of fine bubbles trapped during the glazing process. It is also proposed that the multi‐layer glazing methods used at the Guan ware kilns at Hangzhou may have helped initially to disguise the relatively coarse and ferruginous clays used for Guan ware manufacture. Once established, the layered glazing technique was used for its own sake—eventually yielding wares that could comprise more glaze than clay. Raw materials and firing temperatures were also explored for this study, and these suggest the use of porcelain‐stone/wood ash mixtures for glaze‐making, with 20–30% calcareous wood ash being the usual amounts. The average heat‐work for the glaze firing seems to have been equivalent to Orton Cone 7, giving a typical finishing temperature of ～1215°C. A single biscuit firing and a single glaze firing seem likely for most Laohudong Guan wares. Studies of the losses that occur in the preparation of calcareous wood ashes suggest that very large quantities of botanic material must have been burned to provide ash for glaze‐making at the Laohudong kiln. From the environmental perspective, a combination of thick glazes and heavy wood‐ash usage would have placed great demands on local fuel supplies.     

A SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION OF PIGMENT AND CERAMIC SAMPLES FROM COPÁN,HONDURAS*

A combination of micro‐Raman spectroscopy, micro‐infrared spectroscopy and SEM–EDX was employed to characterize decorative pigments on Classic Maya ceramics from Copán, Honduras. Variation in red paint mixtures was correlated with changing ceramic types and improvements in process and firing techniques. We have confirmed the use of specular hematite on Coner ceramics by the difference in intensities of Raman bands. Different compositions of brown paint were correlated with imported and local wares. The carbon‐iron composition of the ceramic type, Surlo Brown, was confirmed. By combining micro‐Raman analysis with micro‐ATR infrared and SEM–EDX, we have achieved a more comprehensive characterization of the paint mixtures. These spectroscopic techniques can be used non‐destructively on raw samples as a rapid confirmation of ceramic type.     

INSIGHTS INTO NORTH MESOPOTAMIAN ‘METALLIC WARE’*

With the aim of shedding new light on the still poorly understood North Mesopotamian metallic ware, ceramic and soil samples from Tell Beydar (northeastern Syria, third millennium bc ) were investigated using a range of analytical techniques, including optical microscopy, SR–XRD and SEM–EDX. The objective of this work was to differentiate calcareous metallic ware from non‐calcareous ware without the aid of chemical analyses and to find further validation of the existing hypothesis that the former group is an imitation of the latter. A third group of metallic wares from Tell Beydar is believed to be of non‐local, still regional origin.     

The Importance of Rural Sanctuaries in Structuring Non‐Urban Society in Ancient Samnium: Approaches from Architectureand Landscape

This brief article addresses the potential of the study of rural sanctuaries for understanding the performance and general structure of non‐urban society in ancient Samnium. Samnium, a mountainous area in central‐southern Italy, is known for its non‐urbanized settlement organization in the Classical and Hellenistic periods. This article discusses different methodologies to assess the local and regional significance of rural cult sites in this particular societal structure. In reply to a recent article in this journal, it is argued that strong local variability of rural cult sites cannot be ascertained on the basis of the disparate available architectural evidence. On the other hand, it is shown that a landscape archaeological approach, i.e. applying intensive field surveys around Samnite sanctuaries, adds significantly to our understanding of the social function of these cult sites. The surveys (2004–present) document a clear nucleation of rural settlement around cult sites, probably reflecting farm–village communities, and demonstrating the strong local embeddedness of the rural cult sites. The order of magnitude of the rural communities living around the sanctuaries is broadly comparable, which gives us a tangible sense of the character and general structure of Samnite non‐urban society.     

Study on the Material and Manufacturing Technology of Different Types of Longquan Ware Imitations from Dapu Kiln of Guangdong Province in the Ming Dynasty of China (ad 1368–1644)

Research on ancient Longquan wares and their imitations has attracted considerable attention. Using a series of experimental methods, including micro X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy (μ‐XRF), X‐ray diffractometry (XRD), optical microscopy (OM), polarizing microscopy (PLM), dilatometry (DIL) and spectrophotometery, different samples of Longquan imitations from Dapu in Guangdong Province were collected and analysed. The study of different types of celadon from the Dapu kiln factories shows that the pale yellow body had a higher TFe₂O₃ content, and the body material must therefore have been treated differently or have come from a different source. The SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ contents in the body can be used as auxiliary parameters to identify Longquan wares and its imitations. The study also found that both kinds of glaze recipe—including calcium–alkali glaze and alkali–calcium glaze—existed in the Dapu products, which suggested that while imitating Longquan ware, the potters in Dapu also showed innovation in the recipe for the glaze material. Moreover, there were some differences in the TFe₂O₃ content, as well as the size, number and distribution of bubbles in the different types of glaze. Finally, the study revealed that the material of both the saggars and separators were composed of another porcelain clay, different from that of the celadon body. In addition, the white and compact body of the celadon had a higher firing temperature, of 1140–1187 °C, compared with other types of wares, which had a lower firing temperature of 1050–1080 °C.     

Geochemical and Petrographic Analysis of Late Bronze Age Cypriot Ceramics (White Slip I and II and Monochrome) from Tell Atchana/Alalakh (Hatay) in the Amuq Valley

White Slip ware, both White Slip I and II, and Monochrome ware are Middle to Late Bronze Age Cypriot pottery types found across a large area of the Eastern Mediterranean region. A vast quantity of these wares has also been uncovered in Tell Atchana/ancient Alalakh in Hatay in southern Anatolia. We analysed a total of 56 White Slip (n = 36) and Monochrome potsherds (n = 20) from Tell Atchana using XRF, ICP–MS and petrographic thin‐section methods. The main aim of the study was to explore the compositional characteristics of the wares and to determine whether they are local imitations of the Cypriot White Slip and Monochrome wares or represent Cypriot exports to this region. The analytical results proved that White Slip I and II were produced from raw clay of mafic and ultramafic source rocks exposed in the Troodos Massif, available in the Limassol area of southern Cyprus and traded to Tell Atchana. Examples of Monochrome ware excavated in Tell Atchana were also imported to the region, most probably from east/north‐east Cyprus. These results demonstrate a close trading connection between Tell Atchana/Alalakh and southern Cyprus during the Middle to Late Bronze Age.     

NON‐DESTRUCTIVE ANALYSIS OF ‘ORIGINAL’ SONG DYNASTY GUAN WARES AND LATER IMITATIONS FROM THE PALACE MUSEUM COLLECTIONS,BEIJING

Fifty‐eight porcelain samples in Guan ware style from the collections of the Palace Museum in Beijing were analysed using non‐destructive ED‐XRF. These included 40 vessels that were traditionally ascribed as Guan wares of the Song Dynasty, and 18 vessels traditionally ascribed as imitation Guan wares, made during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The purposes of this study were: (1) to cross‐check the traditional identification of these wares with the new classification based on their chemical compositions; and (2) to carry out a provenance study of the authentic Song Guan wares—that is, to compare the chemical compositions of the authentic Song Guan wares with those of the shards unearthed from the known Guan ware kilns of the Song Dynasty. This study shows that: (1) the chemical compositions of the glaze are significantly different between the Song Guan wares and the imitation wares—among the 58 wares tested, seven are likely to have been misidentified by the traditional method; and (2) the glaze compositions of the authentic Song Guan wares themselves are not homogeneous, and they can be divided into three groups. The provenance of these groups was briefly investigated.     

STUDY ON THE PROVENANCE OF XICUN QINGBAI WARES FROM THE NORTHERN SONG DYNASTY OF CHINA

The Xicun kiln in Guangdong Province was a famous porcelain kiln in the Song Dynasty of China, and for years there has been controversy over the provenance of Xixun Qingbai wares. This paper analyses Qingbai samples from the Xicun, Hutian (Jingdezhen) and Chaozhou (Guangdong Province) kilns by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS) and energy‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence probe (EDXRF). The analytical results indicate that wares with a thin body excavated from the Xicun kiln site were produced in the Hutian kiln, and wares with a thick body were locally fired in Xicun; the contents of trace elements (V, Rb, Ba, Ta, Pb and Th) and the Nb/Ta ratio can be used to discriminate the products from the Xicun and Chaozhou kilns.     

Trauma to the Skull: A Historical Perspective from the Southern Levant (4300BCE–1917CE)

Background: Although the southern Levant is commonly perceived as having been a violent region throughout history, few studies have explored the pattern and intensity of skull trauma through time in the general population. The aim of this study is to follow changes in traumatic injury patterns in the southern Levant, over an extensive period of 6,000 years. Methods: 783 archaeological skulls from the Tel Aviv University osteological collection were examined for evidence of trauma. The specimens were divided into three periods: Chalcolithic‐Bronze‐Iron Age (4300–520 BCE), Hellenistic‐Roman‐Byzantine Period (332 BCE‐640 CE), and Early and Late Arab Period (640–1917 CE). The characteristics of injury on each skull were recorded. Results: A high frequency (25%) of traumatic lesions to the skull was evident among historic populations of the southern Levant, a rate that did not fluctuate significantly over 6,000 years. The most common pattern of trauma was minor circular depressed injuries. Most of the injuries were located on the parietal or frontal bones. Traumatic lesions were more frequent in males than in females, and in mature individuals than in adolescents and children, during all periods. Conclusions: The rate of trauma in the southern Levantine populations was shown to be considerably higher than in other archaeological populations worldwide. The fact that no significant differences in trauma rates were found over time implies that socio‐economical shifts (from agrarian to urban populations) had little impact on the local populations’ aggressive behavior. In contrast, changes in type of injury, from blunt force trauma to sharp force trauma and eventually projectile trauma, reflects changes in weaponry over time. The accumulated characteristics of cranial trauma pattern (type, location, side, size, sex, age) suggest that most of the individuals studied were not engaged directly in warfare. Rather, most injuries seem to be due to blows given during interpersonal violent encounters. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Hellenistic and Roman Syracuse (Sicily) Fine Pottery Production Explored by Chemical and Petrographic Analysis

The chemical composition and petrographic features of 51 samples of fine pottery selected from the archaeological site of Syracuse have been established by means of optical microscopy and X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry, with the aim of creating a reference group for the ceramics produced in this important Greek colony during the Hellenistic–Roman period. This reference group is constrained by the analysis of six kiln wasters and of raw materials outcropping in the studied area. Among the studied findings, the main part is assignable imputably to local production, while some specimens probably come from Greece and other colonies (Messina and Gela). The Syracuse fine pottery is characterized by inclusions formed mainly by quartz and micaceous and fossiliferous groundmass. The used pastes were more or less purified through the removal of the sandy‐to‐coarse silty granulometric fraction. The multivariate statistical analysis of chemical data permits the identification of production at Syracuse on the basis of comparison with the kiln wasters and the Plio‐Pleistocene clays.     

Cooking Pots and Islamicization in the Early Medieval Vega of Granada (Al‐Andalus,Sixth to Twelfth Centuries)

In this paper we undertake a petrographic analysis of cooking wares in order to explore the relationship between cultural change and issues of production, consumption and distribution of cooking wares, and particularly between political authority and the location of workshops in the early Islamic Vega of Granada, a region in south‐eastern Spain. This work offers the possibility of testing the potential of thin section petrography in combination with a detailed archaeological study and a well‐documented historical background. Examination of both the technology and microprovenance of wares within the Vega has led to a fruitful set of results with an important impact on our understanding of the place of ceramic material culture on both the local and the regional scale.