Methods for inferring paleohabitats from the functional morphology of bovid phalanges

The functional morphology of postcranial remains can be used to infer habitat preference. This approach is typically considered an “ecomorphological” method, and has frequently been applied to bovid postcranial remains. Methods for predicting habitat preference from bovid postcrania currently exist for femora, metapodials, and astragali. Here we describe three methods for predicting paleohabitats using measurements of African bovid phalanges (proximal, intermediate, and distal). The proximal phalanx method correctly predicted the habitat preference for 130 of 183 modern bovid specimens (71.0%, 2.8 times better than chance, p < 0.0001). The intermediate phalanx method correctly predicted the habitat preference for 115 of 163 modern bovid specimens (70.6%, 2.8 times better than chance, p < 0.0001). The distal phalanx method correctly predicted the habitat preference for 87 of 122 modern bovid specimens (71.3%, 2.8 times better than chance, p < 0.0001). These accuracies compare well with those of existing such methods (1.8–3.4 times better than chance). Analysis of the probabilities associated with the habitat predictions allows confidence thresholds to be established that identify specific predictions which have <5% chance of being in error. This raises the effective accuracy of the methods to 95%. Extensive exploration and manipulation of the underlying data demonstrate that the habitat predictions are generally robust, and are relatively independent of body weight, taxonomy, and sample composition. These methods are broadly applicable, relatively accurate, and can be used to generate independent predictions of habitat from different elements, and thus constitute a useful approach to inferring past environments.     

Carbon isotope fractionation between diet,breath CO2, and bioapatite in different mammals

The carbon isotope fractionation between tooth enamel bioapatite, breath CO₂, and diet was measured for voles, rabbits, pigs, and cattle on controlled diets. The measured fractionation (expressed as isotope enrichment ɛ*) between enamel and diet was 11.5 ± 0.3‰, 12.8 ± 0.7‰, 13.3 ± 0.3‰, and 14.6 ± 0.3‰ for these respective species. There is a 1:1 correlation between ɛ*_{breath–diet} and ɛ*_{enamel–diet} (r² = 0.94, p < 0.01), whereas our data do not resolve significant inter-species differences in ɛ*_{enamel–breath}. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that inter-species differences in ɛ*_{bioapatite–diet} are primarily a result of differences in digestive physiology, rather than differences in the magnitude of fractionation between mineral and body fluid.     

A rock magnetic record of Pleistocene rainfall variations at the Palaeolithic site of Attirampakkam,Southeastern India

Attirampakkam, an open-air stratified Palaeolithic site in southeastern India is the focus of ongoing studies to investigate the nature of Lower and Middle Palaeolithic occupation in relation to changing Pleistocene environments. The paucity of faunal or palaeobotanical remains at the site required the use of rock magnetic properties (χ_lf, χ_fd, χ_fd %, χ_ARM, SIRM, χ_ARM/SIRM, SIRM/χ_lf, χ_ARM/χ_lf, χ_ARM/χ_fd, S-ratio, HIRM and HIRM/IRM_300mT) as proxies for deciphering the palaeoenvironments and palaeoclimates of the region. Rock magnetic data from stratified deposits within excavated trenches show that the bulk of the sedimentation was intermittent with no subaerial exposure of sediments for long periods, and points to fluctuating wetter and drier climates associated with the Acheulian to Late Middle Palaeolithic levels. There is a general trend towards a wetter climate from Layer 5 upwards. Layer 7 offers evidence of bacterial magnetite (χ_ARM/χ_lf > 40 and χ_ARM/χ_fd > 1000), suggesting the onset of micro-anaerobic environments as a result of floods. Greigite is indicated in Layer 5 (SIRM/χ_lf > 30 × 10³ A m^?1), which indicates a reducing environment. Layer 2 represents an arid climate (higher proportion of haematite and a coarser magnetic grain size). Layer 1a again is indicative of an arid climate (presence of calcrete, magnetically “hard” minerals and coarser magnetic grain size). Results indicate that the southeast coast of India experienced a mostly dry tropical climate during the Pleistocene. The detected occurrence of a few notably more arid intervals did not disrupt occupation of the site by successive groups of hominins.     

Reconstructing northern Chinese Neolithic subsistence practices by isotopic analysis

Stable isotope signatures of both human and non-human animal bone samples indicate that Neolithic farmers of the Yellow and Wei River basins in China potentially cultivated millet for two reasons: as a staple for human consumption and as fodder for domesticated animals, specifically pigs, dogs, and perhaps chicken. Bone samples were analyzed from four Neolithic sites: Jiangzhai, Shijia, Xipo, and Kangjia, spanning the time period from 7000 to 4000 years ago. A combination of very high carbon isotope ratios (δ¹³C = −7.7 ± 0.4‰) and low nitrogen isotope ratios (δ¹⁵N = 7.5 ± 0.5‰) in samples of Xipo pig and dog bone suggests that these monogastric animals consumed substantial quantities of C₄ plants, almost certainly millets. In fact, the proportion of C₄ plants in animal diets appears to have been even greater than that in human diet. Stable isotope values (δ¹³C = −10.0 ± 0.8‰; δ¹⁵N = 8.3 ± 0.5‰) of human bone collagen recovered at Jiangzhai and Shijia indicate a staple role for millets, as well as the consumption of both wild and other non-C₄ domesticated plant foods. As millet agriculture and animal husbandry apparently depended on one another, a strong mutualism between them was likely established in northern China during the Neolithic. We propose that variable redistribution of agricultural products between humans and animals, depending on the availability of wild resources and annual fluctuations in agricultural output, helped ensure the stability of Neolithic human subsistence in the Yellow and Wei River basins.     

Immunoglobulin G in 1·6 Million-year-old Fossil Bones from Venta Micena (Granada,Spain)

We studied the presence of immunoglobulin G (IgG) in equid fossil bones from Venta Micena (Granada, Spain), dated at 1·6 Myr old, and from Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain) (0·12 Myr), and in ostensibly hominid fossils VM1960 and VM3691 (1·6 Myr) from Venta Micena and CV1 and CV2 (1·4 Myr) from Cueva Victoria (Murcia, Spain). Samples taken from the specimens were crushed to a fine powder and their mineral structure was dissolved in an ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA) solution. Fossil extracts were tested with antibodies against human IgG and against horse IgG with two independent immunological methods: dot-blotting (DB) and a modification of this latter method: quantitative dot-blotting (QDB). IgG was detected by DB and was quantifiable by QDB in some of the fossils tested. Equid fossils from Atapuerca and Venta Micena gave stronger reactions with the antibodies against horse IgG than with the antibodies against human IgG. Fossils VM3691 and VM1960 reacted more strongly with the antibodies against human IgG than with antibodies against horse IgG, whereas no IgG was detected in fossils CV1 and CV2. These findings show that species-specific IgG can be detected in fossils as old as 1·6 Myr. The immunological analysis of fossil proteins may help to solve palaeontological controversies.     

Selective hunting of pine marten,Martes martes,in Late Mesolithic Denmark

Pine marten, Martes martes, is the dominating fur prey at three contemporaneous Danish Late Atlantic sites, Agernæs (EMNI = 34), Ringkloster (EMNI = 41) and Tybrind Vig (EMNI = 26). All skeletal elements are represented and the only marks present on the skeleton are those consistent with skinning. Burned teeth in the three populations suggest either new hunting methods or a ritual act. Ringkloster is on the mainland, while Tybrind Vig and Agernæs are island localities. Morphometric data indicate that the subfossil population of larger individuals was maintained on the mainland due to free migration, while the animals in the subfossil island populations had decreased in size in the Late Atlantic.     

Shell tool use by early members of Homo erectus in Sangiran,central Java,Indonesia: cut mark evidence

Sangiran has been known as a source of fossil Homo erectus but is better known for the absence of archaeological tools. Cut mark analysis of Pleistocene mammalian fossils documents 18 cut marks inflicted by tools of thick clamshell flakes on two bovid bones created during butchery at the Pucangan Formation in Sangiran between 1.6 and 1.5 million years ago. These cut marks document the use of the first tools in Sangiran and the oldest evidence of shell tool use in the world.     

Sources of Archaeological Obsidian on Sakhalin Island (Russian Far East)

Instrumental neutron activation analysis was performed on 79 obsidian tools and flakes from 35 sites on Sakhalin Island dating from Upper Paleolithic (c. 19,000 bp ) to Early Iron Age (c. 2000–800 bp ). Due to the absence of volcanic glass on Sakhalin Island, raw materials from the nearest obsidian sources on Hokkaido Island, such as Oketo, Shirataki, Tokachi-Mitsumata, and Akaigawa, were also analysed. A strong correlation between the chemical compositions of obsidian artefacts from Sakhalin and volcanic glass sources from Hokkaido was discovered. In particular, the Oketo and Shirataki sources were used for tool manufacturing throughout all of Sakhalin Island's prehistory. The distances between sources and archaeological sites range from 200–1000 km. The intensive exchange of raw materials continued and even intensified after the appearance of the La Pérouse (Soya) Strait between Hokkaido and Sakhalin about 10,000–8000 bp. The Sakhalin Island populations were deeply involved in the obsidian exchange network centered on Hokkaido.     

Taphonomic implications of roosting behavior and trophic habits in two species of African owl

As some of the most common predators of micromammals, owls are implicated in the formation of many fossil assemblages. Actualistic research on owl-accumulated assemblages has tended to focus on owls roosting in caves. Comparatively few data are available on the roosting behavior, and prey preference of owls in open habitats. This paper presents observations on the roosting and prey habits of two sympatric species of owl in the Serengeti region of northern Tanzania, the Barn Owl, Tyto alba affinis, and the Spotted Eagle Owl, Bubo africanus. The Barn Owl and Spotted Eagle Owl are found to segregate by roosting habit, with Barn Owls occupying cavity roosts and Eagle Owls appearing on the ground or in tree crowns. Previous studies comparing these two species suggested a close similarity in trophic habits. A comparison of large samples (MNI = 1012) at cavity and exposed roosts shows identical taxonomic representation, though differences are found in the relative abundance of some taxa and significant differences in prey body mass.     

Assessment of material characteristics of ancient concretes,Grande Aula,Markets of Trajan,Rome

The Grande Aula, or Great Hall, of the Markets of Trajan (AD 96 to 115) is an intact example of the domed, concrete architecture of imperial Rome. Petrographic, x-ray diffraction, chemical, and SEM analyses demonstrate that wall mortars contain Pozzolane Rosse volcanic ash aggregate (harenae fossiciae) and strätlingite, a complex calcium aluminate cement hydrate (C₂ ASH₈) that gives modern cements good durability and compressive strength. Specific gravity tests and a new petrographic method for assessing bulk densities indicate unit weights of about 1750 kg/m³ for the wall mortars and 1430–1640 kg/m³ for the pumice bearing, vaulted ceiling mortars. Innovative point load source tests record the tensile strengths (f_t) of the aggregate and interfacial elements of the conglomeratic concrete fabric. These suggest f_t of about 2.7 MPa for brick, 1.2 MPa for Tufo Lionato tuff, and 0.9 MPa for Tufo Giallo della Via Tiberina tuff coarse aggregate (caementa), based on a tentative, approximate correlation with splitting (Brazilian) tests. The pozzolanic mortar and interfacial zones have lower f_t in the range of 0.8 MPa to 0.5 MPa. The relatively low mortar strength and its somewhat tenuous adhesion to the coarse aggregate suggests that the caementa may have arrested the propagation of tensile microcracks that formed in the mortar, thereby increasing the composite tensile strength of the concrete. Roman builders selected the complex aggregate mixes to optimize the performance of the wall and vault concretes.     

Land Snails from an Ancient Shipwreck: The Need to Detect Wreck-Independent Finds in Excavation Analysis

Land snails recovered from shipwreck excavations can potentially provide information regarding human-based dispersal of the involved species and also contribute to hypotheses regarding a ship's route and geographical origins of some of its cargo. Such faunal material, however, must be subjected to critical study to ascertain whether they represent specimens originally associated with the ship itself or are simply elements introduced to the site after the ship sank. The excavation of a Late Bronze Age shipwreck at Uluburun, in southern Turkey, produced 36 land snails. Of these, 32 specimens are believed to have been on board the vessel in antiquity. Three other specimens represent an endemic Metafruticicola species, which lives exclusively in a 10 km zone in the region of Uluburun. The proximity of the species' habitat to the shipwreck site suggests that these specimens are intrusive elements. The intrusive nature of a single Zonites specimen also recovered from the excavation is amply demonstrated by a detailed comparative study of Zonites specimens collected in the same locality. The last study, which involves the analysis of spatial shell variations of populations collected from 61 separate localities (totalling 367 specimens) within a 50 km area extending from Megisti (Kastelórizo) and Kas to Finike, suggests that: (1) Zonites beydaglariensis is conspecific with Z. caricus, and (2) the shipwreck specimen not only belongs to this species, but that it originates from a population on the rocky Uluburun peninsula 0·8–1·2 km north of the shipwreck site. The specimen was probably blown into the sea by a natural phenomenon and settled on the shipwreck site.     

Ancient long-distance trade in Western North America: new AMS radiocarbon dates from Southern California

Eleven Olivella biplicata spire-lopped shell beads from six sites located 250–365 km inland from the Pacific coast of southern California produced AMS dates between 11,200 and 7860 CAL BP. Olivella shell beads were well-documented items of prestige and media of exchange in Native California, and recovery of these examples from inland contexts indicates low-level exchange between resident populations of the coast and the southwestern Great Basin by at least 10,300–10,000 CAL years BP. These findings represent some of the earliest unequivocal evidence for long-distance trade in western North America and push the antiquity of this important form of inter-group interaction back several thousand years earlier than previously thought.     

The ‘Headless Romans’: multi-isotope investigations of an unusual burial ground from Roman Britain

Recent excavations at Driffield Terrace in York (Northern England) revealed an extremely unusual Romano-British cemetery of probably all-male composition, more than half of the individuals decapitated and with high incidence of other peri- and antemortem trauma. This paper presents the results of multi- (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and strontium) isotopic analyses of bone and dentine collagen (n = 68) and tooth enamel (n = 18) which were conducted to obtain further information on the identity of these individuals and, more generally, in order to investigate the relationship between burial rite and geographical origin in a Roman provincial capital. The results show that the childhood origins of the “Headless Romans” were significantly more diverse than those of humans from other cemeteries in Roman York, but they demonstrate also that similar, unusual burial rites do not necessarily indicate a common geographical origin. Of particular interest were two individuals whose diet contained a significant proportion of C₄ plant (probably millet)-based protein. These are the first such isotope values observed in Britain from any archaeological time-period. Millet was not cultivated in the British Isles in antiquity and the results therefore demonstrate the value of palaeodietary data for assisting in isotopic mobility studies.     

Cultural and trade practices in Sincu Bara (Senegal): a multi-proxy investigation

The Sincu Bara site in Senegal is one of the most famous archeological sites in Western Africa. Here we present the results of a multi-proxy study that combined microscopic analyses, carbon content, stable carbon isotope (δ¹³C) and radiocarbon (¹⁴C) measurements. This investigation exhibits a chronological framework in two phases: from 400 yr AD to 650 yr AD and 650 yr AD to 900 yr AD. Furthermore, it shows that besides basic potteries, some potsherds are notable for a temper exclusively made with human-harvested C4 plants. Finally, the ¹⁴C analysis performed on the organic slip strongly indicates the use of bitumen or bitumen-derived products for red slip preparation. This suggests the establishment of trade relationships with Nigerian and/or Trans-Saharan populations as early as 400 yr AD.     

Infra-red Photoacoustic and Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry Measurements of Obsidian Hydration Rims

A procedure has been developed for measuring obsidian hydration rim thicknesses on archaeological artefacts using infra-red photoacoustic spectroscopy (IR-PAS). Calibration of the IR-PAS values with depth was completed using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and optical microscopy to relate the quantity of diffused water to the measured thickness of the hydration layer. By monitoring the absorbance intensity at 1630 cm⁻¹wavenumbers, hydration rims between approximately 1 μm and 12 μm may be accurately measured and used for chronometric age estimates. SIMS depth profiling has the ability to measure layers less than 1 μm thick, extending the age calibration to samples of less than 100 years in age.     

Rapid,in-stride soil phosphate measurement in archaeological survey: a new method tested in Loudoun County,Virginia

We report the development and field test of a modified method for soil phosphate analysis for survey archaeology. Consideration of relative, rather than absolute, phosphate levels permits the abbreviation of standard extraction techniques, while two-color spectral monitoring provides reliable values without the need for the typical 40–60 min development period. Using this technique, a soil sample may be fully analyzed for phosphate in as little as 6 min. The technique was used in the field simultaneously with a standard woodland shovel-testing survey in an effort to locate a now lost historic farmstead in northwest Loudoun County, Virginia.     

Analyzing the process of domestication: Hagoshrim as a case study

Recent excavations at the Neolithic site of Hagoshrim, northern Israel, have yielded a large assemblage of skeletal fragments, representing mostly caprines, cattle and pigs. The three layers of the site's occupation span approximately 2000 years of a crucial period in the domestication of these taxa in the southern Levant, including Pre-Pottery Neolithic C (Layer 6, 7562 ± 85 BP and 7735 ± 55 BP) and the Pottery Neolithic cultures, Jericho IX (Layer 5, 6725 ± 120 BP) and Wadi Raba (Layer 4, 6505 ± 120 BP). Therefore, this site provides an outstanding opportunity to study the process of domestication in a comparative manner, both across taxa and through time. We used kill-off patterns, size reduction and changes in body proportions, and introduced statistical methods to discern the different stages of the domestication process for each taxon. Pig remains reflect simultaneous changes at the end of the 7th millennium BP: kill-off patterns, size and proportions of cranial and post-cranial elements all change between Layer 5 and 4 with no significant changes between Layer 6 and 5. Gradual changes—both between Layer 6 and 5 and between Layer 5 and 4—were found only for cattle, while caprine remains exhibit no changes throughout the site's occupation. These results can be explained in light of the differences between the taxa in terms of their life history strategies, among other things, that can be viewed as pre-adaptations to domestication.     

ESR and AMS-based 14C Dating of Mousterian Levels at Mujina Pećina,Dalmatia, Croatia

This paper presents the first chronometric dates for sediments that contain a Mousterian industry in Dalmatia (south Croatia). Electron spin resonance (ESR) dating was conducted on two teeth from the Mousterian level E1 at the site of Mujina Pećina. Additionally five bone and one charcoal sample from five different strata of origin at this site were dated by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). Assuming 30% moisture for both the gamma and beta dose rate calculations, the mean LU ESR age estimate is 44±5 ka for level E1, which is statistically indistinguishable from the mean EU ESR age estimate of 40±7 ka. A single, uncalibrated ¹⁴C age from the E1/E2 interface yielded an age estimate of 45,170 +2780/−2060 years bp while the mean of the five samples from overlying Mousterian levels is 39±3 ka. The true (calibrated) age of this mean is about 42 ka, which means that the entire stratigraphic profile in Mujina Pećina apparently was very rapidly deposited, and that the ESR age, regardless of uptake model is in good agreement with the calibrated ¹⁴C mean age. Temporally, Mujina Pećina overlaps with Pontinian Mousterian sites in west-central Italy and Vindija level G3 from northwestern Croatia. However, there are notable differences between the Mousterian industry from Mujina Pećina and these other sites. Collectively, the Croatian sites yield important evidence on the adaptation of European Mousterian people.     

Expanding ecomorphological methods: geometric morphometric analysis of Cervidae post-crania

This study presents ecomorphological methods for reconstructing paleohabitats using three-dimensional geometric morphometric analyses of Cervidae (deer and relatives) post-cranial elements. Cervids are often the most abundant taxon in Eurasian Plio-Pleistocene sites, yet their post-cranial remains are rarely utilized in paleoecological reconstructions. Cervids are found in a wide variety of habitats, and thus their ecomorphology spans an appropriate range to serve as a proxy for paleohabitat. Four morphological features are examined in this study; the calcaneus as a whole (n = 122), the medial margin of the patellar surface of the femur (n = 133), the lateral margin of the tibial plateau (n = 136), and the plantar margin of the third phalanx (n = 62). These features were chosen because they represent various aspects of cervid locomotion important for power generation, stability, and substrate interaction. For each feature, canonical variates analyses with cross-validations were used to assess how well landmark configurations distinguish among specimens from different habitat types. Cross-validations returned correct reclassifications rates ranging from 38.9% to 66.3% in a four-habitat system, with resubstitution rates of 55.4% to 79.1% correct. Most habitat groups were found to be significantly different at p < 0.0001 using permutations tests. Variation in these ecomorphological adaptations are explored via visualizations depicting “open” and “closed” habitat types, and hypotheses are presented for cervid functional morphology.