Modern humans in Sarawak,Malaysian Borneo,during Oxygen Isotope Stage 3: palaeoenvironmental evidence from the Great Cave of Niah

During recent reinvestigations in the Great Cave of Niah in Borneo, the ‘Hell Trench’ sedimentary sequence seen by earlier excavators was re-exposed. Early excavations here yielded the earliest anatomically-modern human remains in island Southeast Asia. Calibrated radiocarbon dates, pollen, algal microfossils, palynofacies, granulometry and geochemistry of the ‘Hell Trench’ sequence provide information about environmental and vegetational changes, elements of geomorphic history and information about human activity. The ‘Hell’ sediments were laid down episodically in an ephemeral stream or pool. The pollen suggests cyclically changing vegetation with forest habitats alternating with more open environments; indicating that phases with both temperatures and precipitation reduced compared with the present. These events can be correlated with global climate change sequences to produce a provisional dating framework. During some forest phases, high counts of Justicia, a plant which today colonises recently burnt forest areas, point to fire in the landscape. This may be evidence for biomass burning by humans, presumably to maintain forest-edge habitats. There is evidence from palynofacies for fire on the cave floor in the ‘Hell’ area. Since the area sampled is beyond the limit of plant growth, this is evidence for human activity. The first such evidence is during an episode with significant grassland indicators, suggesting that people may have reached the site during a climatic phase characterised by relatively open habitats ∼50 ka. Thereafter, people were able to maintain a relatively consistent presence at Niah. The human use of the ‘Hell’ area seems to have intensified through time, probably because changes in the local hydrological regime made the area dryer and more suitable for human use.     

Composite hunting technologies from the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene,Niah Cave,Borneo

Renewed archaeological investigation of the West Mouth of Niah Cave, Borneo has demonstrated that even within lowland equatorial environments depositional conditions do exist where organic remains of late glacial and early post-glacial age can be preserved. Excavations by the Niah Cave Research Project (NCP) (2000–2003) towards the rear of the archaeological reserve produced several bone points and worked stingray spines, which exhibit evidence of hafting mastic and fibrous binding still adhering to their shafts. The position of both gives strong indication of how these cartilaginous points were hafted and gives insight into their potential function. These artefacts were recovered from secure and ¹⁴C dated stratigraphic horizons. The results of this study have implications for our understanding the function of the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene bone tools recovered from other regions of Island Southeast Asia. They demonstrate that by the end the Pleistocene rainforest foragers in Borneo were producing composite technologies that probably included fishing leisters and potentially the bow and arrow.     

The chemistry of tree resins and ancient rock paintings in the Niah Caves,Sarawak (Borneo): some evidence of rain forest management by early human populations

Research concerning the Niah Caves located in Sarawak, Borneo, has demonstrated human occupation of south-east Asia from c. 50,000 years ago until the present. Elaborate paintings, believed to date from the first millennium AD, in which a red colouration predominates, occur in an adjacent cave system. Analysis of the paint revealed it to be comparable with a red resin produced by a native leguminous tree and a resin produced by trees in Australia where caves containing predominantly red paintings are also to be found. Potential cultural/technological linkages between Sarawak and Australia are suggested. Our findings additionally contribute to evidence for the antiquity and complexity of rain forest management in south-east Asia.     

Shell-gathering from mangroves and the seasonality of the Southeast Asian Monsoon using high-resolution stable isotopic analysis of the tropical estuarine bivalve (Geloina erosa) from the Great Cave of Niah, Sarawak: methods and reconnaissance of molluscs of early Holocene and modern times

This paper describes a reconnaissance, high-resolution, study of stable isotopes (δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C) from modern shells of the estuarine bivalve Geloina erosa, and those dated to the early Holocene that were harvested by people from mangroves near the Great Cave of Niah on the north coast of Borneo. This reconnaissance study provides high-resolution palaeoclimatic-palaeohydrological information concerning early human activity in the region and the past character of the Southeast Asian Monsoon. Laser ablation continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometry (LA-CF-IRMS) on modern shells of Geloina erosa revealed ‘saw-tooth’ stable isotopic profiles that bear a close resemblance to peaks and troughs of trends in recent local rainfall, including the 1998 El Niño drought, highlighting the potential of Geloina erosa for reconstructing seasonality of the Southeast Asian Palaeomonsoon. LA-CF-IRMS analysis of prehistoric shells of Geloina erosa held in the Harrisson Archives of the Sarawak Museum revealed cyclical shifts in δ¹⁸O with similar amplitudes of variation as found in modern shells of Geloina erosa. As at the present day, this probably reflects the changing seasonality of the monsoon rains with shifts to negative δ¹⁸O values during periods of high runoff. Lighter mean δ¹⁸O values of the prehistoric shells, however, may indicate a greater annual surplus of rainfall and possibly consistent with the early Holocene strengthening of the summer monsoon at that time. The similarity of the last growth increment δ¹⁸O of the prehistoric shells to their mean δ¹⁸O profile values suggests that gathering took place during times of moderate runoff.     

Who ate the birds: the taphonomy of Sarakenos Cave,Greece

The taphonomic analysis of avian remains from Sarakenos Cave reveals that, contrary to previous suggestions, many bird bones excavated there represent food remains of the Eagle Owls rather than humans. The conclusion is based on the presence of traces of digestion, beak and claw punctures, and indirect evidence that includes relative preservation of particular elements, species composition, the lack of cut marks, and the absence of numerous traces of burning. Specimens with medullary bone and traces of digestion indicate that the owls killed breeding females in spring. Since it is unlikely that owls shared the cave with humans at the same time, it supports the notion based on archeological evidence that human groups did not inhabit it permanently.     

The taphonomy and palaeoenvironmental implications of the small mammals from Karain Cave,Turkey

The small mammal accumulations in the Pleistocene deposits of Karain Cave are investigated to identify the predators and possible biases in the fossil assemblages. Seven small mammal assemblages are studied in chronological order from two chambers of the cave, the main chamber E and the side chamber B. The lowermost level within the whole sequence is Proto-Charentien, which corresponds to an early stage of the Middle Palaeolithic. The main part of the material belongs to Middle Palaeolithic layers. The most important aspect of the fossil record in the cave is the human occupation without any interruption through the Pleistocene to Holocene. The small mammal fossil evidence in the cave denotes the presence of opportunistic predators throughout the sequence with one exception, and these produce balanced samples of small mammal faunas in the habitat. The lack of bias in the small mammal faunas allow the interpretation of local environments, showing that partial steppe and arid conditions existed during deposition of the lowermost levels of the Middle Palaeolithic in Karain Cave and that these shifted into more temperate and wooded habitat in the upper levels. Evidence from the side chamber indicates some differences, with a more open grassy environment. In the Mediterranean part of Anatolia the temperate and moist conditions in the Middle Palaeolithic were superseded by more arid conditions in the Upper Palaeolithic, followed by a decrease in steppe conditions during the Epi-Palaeolithic period.     

To catch a chameleon,or actualism vs. natural history in the taphonomy of the microvertebrate fraction at Qesem Cave,Israel

Qesem Cave is a unique Middle Pleistocene, hominin-bearing site in Israel that contains a rich microvertebrate accumulation. The microvertebrates are highly unusual in that half of them are from small reptiles, and most of the reptiles are chameleons, which are otherwise rare in the fossil record. Analysis of the lower vertebrate component shows uniform taphonomic characteristics: on average 17.6% of specimens show evidence of corrosion (the vast majority light), and specimen breakage is between 4.9 and 12.0%, depending on metric. Charring is negligible. Most species are small (body mass <60 g). These taphonomic attributes do not vary in the studied portion of the stratigraphic profile, nor do they systematically vary between taxa. Thorough study of all skeletal parts suggests that most individuals probably entered the cave as whole animals; the only exception is the large glass lizard, Pseudopus, which is represented mostly by the tail. These taphonomic data suggest a Barn Owl as the predominant accumulator. However, natural history observations on Barn Owls and chameleons are strongly at odds with this actualistic inference: Barn Owls are nowhere recorded as a major predator on chameleons. We argue that a focus on extant, especially European, populations could distort our understanding of their feeding biology and is vulnerable to counterexample. We propose a scenario that harmonizes actualism and natural history. We further identify a possible owl roost in Qesem Cave, the first time such a roost has been identified in a collapsed cave setting. These conclusions may have conservation implications for chameleons. They also suggest that the hearth adjacent to the microvertebrate concentration was situated in the twilight zone.     

Variability and sampling strategy of cave wall concretion: Case study of the moonmilk found in Leye Cave (Dordogne)

Cave Art is a fragile testimony of past human societies and the development of modern behaviours. In limestone caves, moonmilk commonly endanger the artworks. It is a calcite deposit with a large variability of chemical composition and morphological structures and it hosts numerous microbial communities. The possibility to characterize this deposit in the field would aid in a better understanding of cave behaviour and allow the setting up of proper conservation measures. The present study analyses the variability of a moonmilk strip of metric size in Leye Cave in the Vézère Valley (Dordogne, France). The cave was not ornate and was selected as a laboratory cave in which in‐situ observations and micro‐sampling could be carried out, before they were performed in cavities hosting parietal artworks. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations of 24 samples allowed, for the first time, an investigation of the variability of moonmilk deposits over the same wall of a few metres dimension. The observations highlighted the low variability of the moonmilk at the microscopic scale when regarding the chemical composition and morphological structures, despite significant macroscopic diversity, thus providing insights into how to optimize the sampling strategy of moonmilk in ornate caves.     

An exclusively hyena-collected bone assemblage in the Late Pleistocene of Sicily: taphonomy and stratigraphic context of the large mammal remains from San Teodoro Cave (North-Eastern Sicily,Italy)

A detailed taphonomic analysis of the large mammal assemblage from 1998 to 2006 excavations at San Teodoro Cave is presented, taking into account the stratigraphic context of the deposits. Three not strictly contemporary fossiliferous levels having different lithological features have been detected, here named B-I, B-II, and B-III. Fossil remains are prevalently accumulated in B-I and B-II. The three levels are characterized by evidence of Crocuta crocuta spelaea occupation, represented by their skeletal remains, coprolites, and distinctive damages on the bones, similar to fossil and modern spotted hyena dens from Europe and Africa. A differential distribution of coprolites and small digested bones, probably due to different humidity conditions, has been recognized in B-I and B-II, and can be related to different topographic locations within the cave or to different climate conditions during the sedimentation phases. The very low density of fossil remains in B-III, which is the oldest level, could indicate an area that was less inhabited by hyenas, probably due to geomorphological conditions. Taphonomic comparison of the three fossiliferous levels of the San Teodoro Cave deposits points to a long-term, perhaps cyclic, occupation of the cave by hyenas and confirms the cave as one of the most important Pleistocene hyena dens in Europe.     

The taphonomy and micromorphology of sunken-featured buildings from Lyminge,Kent: A comparative mixed-method analysis

Sunken-featured buildings (SFBs) are the most ubiquitous structure in Anglo-Saxon settlements sites of the 5th and 7th century. This research applies micromorphological and quantitative geochemical analysis using portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive spectroscopy, magnetic susceptibility and organic content measurement to two SFB fills from the Anglo-Saxon royal and monastic site of Lyminge, Kent. This is done with the aim of interpreting depositional and post-depositional processes to help understand human activities contributing to the fill of these features. Such a mixed-method approach, while not unprecedented, has been rarely applied to early mediaeval deposits and has yet to be fully exploited in interpreting SFBs. The analysis reveals that each fill comprises backfilled spoil and dumped midden material from domestic activities, most likely deposited in a single process after each building fell out of use. The intentional incorporation of material from a diversity of sources supports the view that the closure represents a distinct event in the life cycle of these buildings. Geochemical profiling of the fill composition further demonstrates differentials in activity levels potentially associated with more intense periods of site replanning at the time of closure of one of these buildings.     

重新审视中西比较史——《大分流：欧洲、中国及现代世界经济的发展》述评

一、标新立异《大分流》美国学者彭慕兰 (KennethPomeranz)的新著《大分流 :欧洲 ,中国及现代世界经济的发展》一经出版 ,即在学术界引起轰动 ,2 0 0 1年获得美国历史学会的费正清奖和世界历史学会年度奖 ,在国外 ,围绕着这本书和其他一些对中国史和世界史进行再评价的史学新著开展过多次讨论 ,在中国 ,这本书也正在引起越来越多的关注。何谓大分流 ?大分流的英文原文是“GreatDivergence” ,它有多种译法 ,已见之于报章的就有大分流、大分岔、大歧变、大裂变等 ,译者在听取学术界同仁意见后最终选定了“大分流”。1 8世纪在西欧发生的工…     

封闭对敦煌莫高窟洞窟温湿度的影响

环境温湿度是影响文物保护的关键因子。本研究通过对莫高窟北区(132窟)封闭与开放洞窟的监测,对比分析了封闭对洞窟温湿度的影响,并通过人工冷凝确定了洞窟水分的主要来源。开放洞窟的温湿度随大气波动变化,但日温度波动幅度较小;潮湿天气对洞窟湿度影响较大,窟内温湿度主要受外界天气过程影响。相应地,洞窟封闭可消除外界气候及其温湿度日波动的影响,但可导致窟内湿度增高,这说明有来自围岩的水分进入洞窟。长期的封闭会使空气相对湿度明显增高,激活盐分,不利于壁画的保护。而在封闭洞窟内安装冷凝除湿-温湿度控制系统可有效地控制洞窟内的温湿度。洞窟水分的有效收集,证明有来自围岩的蒸发水分。洞窟封闭对比研究为洞窟类文物保护模式的探索提供了新的思路。     

Tracking changes in bone fracture morphology over time: environment, taphonomy, and the archaeological record

Zooarchaeologists have often employed studies of bone fracture morphology as a means of understanding past human cultural activity, and various methodological approaches have been developed for analyzing archaeological broken bone assemblages. It is widely understood that bones degrade over time, however, few studies have attempted to define and quantify the rate at which bones degrade and fracture morphologies change. This study examines degradation in frozen bones (−20 °C) and bones exposed to hot (40 °C) dry conditions. These two simulated environmental conditions represent extreme real-world climates, and allow for an actualistic understanding of the rates of degradation that bones experience in nature. When frozen, bones degrade slowly but significantly, and demonstrate measurable differences in samples frozen for 1, 10, 20, 40, and 60 weeks. In hot, dry conditions, bones degrade very quickly, and demonstrate measurable differences after 1, 3, 7, 14, and 21 days. These data allow for a more detailed understanding of the relationship between the cultural and natural processes that result in bone fracture, and the time period during which bones can be expected to maintain fresh fracture characteristics. This research also has implications for understanding human subsistence and survival strategies and for interpreting the archaeological record.     

莫高窟108窟内空气温湿度的变化过程及其对窟内水汽和热量来源的启示

为了对108窟内不同位置的温度、湿度和空气压力进行监测,设置了12个点的传感器。监测结果表明,窟内温度存在着显著的昼夜和长期的变化,其中上层空气的温度变化尤其明显,而下层空气的温度变化则相对较小。在夏天,窟内的上层空气温度高于下层空气的温度。窟内空气的绝对湿度受外部环境严重影响,存在近似昼夜的变化。在分布上,窟内空气湿度在上层和前部高,而在下层和后部则较小。窟内存在着净的水汽输入过程,但水汽不是从洞窟的入口进入的。同样,窟内的空气压力也存在着明显的昼夜变化过程,并受外部环境的影响而升高或下降,窟内东侧的空气压力大于西侧的空气压力。这些结果一致说明,在108窟的东侧上层存在着水汽和热量的来源。研究结果为下一步的盐害防治工作提供了思路,具有重要的科学意义和应用价值。