The influence of screen mesh size,and size and shape of rodent teeth on recovery

It is suggested with increasing frequency that rather than the industry standard of 1/4 inch mesh, zooarchaeologists use 1/8 inch or even 1/16 inch mesh to insure more complete recovery. These suggestions are based on the implicit assumption that the body size of a taxon and the probability that the remains of that taxon will be recovered are positively correlated. Size of skeletal specimens provides a more direct measure of recovery probability and accounts for the fact that not all skeletal elements in a body are the same size. Frequencies of eight kinds of rodent teeth representing three genera recovered from the Marmes archaeological site in southeastern Washington State, USA, correlate strongly with tooth size despite the use of 1/25 inch mesh screens. Shape of tooth types measured is insufficiently varied to reveal more than a general relationship between shape and recovery frequency. Choice of an appropriate screen mesh should consider the nature of a deposit, research goals, and cost efficiency.     

Mesolithic fishery in the Polish Lowland. Fish remains from the Site 7 at Krzyż Wielkopolski,Poland

Fish remains have been discovered at seven Mesolithic sites located mainly in central and northern Poland, an area that is known as the Lakeland of the Polish Lowland. Based mainly on the results of the identification of fish remains uncovered during the excavations at the Site 7 in Krzy? Wielkopolski (Western Poland), the conclusions were made on the locality and technique of fishery. The fish taxa represented show that the fishing showed that the fishing economy during the Mesolithic period was focused on nearby freshwater rivers and lakes. At that time, people fished primarily for Cyprinids, pike and perch. According to the archaeological finds, the basic fishing tools used by the Mesolithic communities were spears, harpoons and rods with hooks. The small fishes recovered were most probably caught by fishing traps or nets, but such artifact finds are very rare in the Polish Lowland. This paper summarises the current data on Mesolithic fishery in the Polish Lowland based mainly on the data from the Site 7 at Krzy? Wielkopolski, but also includes archaeological data collected from previous studies in the region.     

Size does matter: methodological comments on sieve size and species richness in fishbone assemblages

Vale and Gargett (J. Archaeol. Sci. 29 (2002) 57) discuss the finds from sieving experiments through 6 mm, 3 mm, and 1 mm mesh sizes from Arrawarra-I, a coastal midden site in Australia. They claimed that the relationship between sieve mesh size and both taxonomic richness and abundance is not straightforward. We reanalyzed Vale and Gargett's data to estimate species richness in larger sample sizes. By fitting logarithmic series to the data, we calculated the alpha diversity, and used that statistics to predict number of species expected at a given sample size. This statistical method is called “the equivalent alpha diversity method for abundifaction”. We demonstrate that taxonomic diversity would have been higher (14 species rather then 10) for an NISP of 2000 bones, sieved through a 1 mm mesh. We also demonstrate that Vale and Gargett's conclusion is flawed due to their small sample size (432 identified bones out of 60,000), inadequate sampling methods and poor analytical methodology. By using Vale and Gargett's data, we reach the opposite conclusion, and show that the use of 3 and 1 mm mesh sieves is indeed important in measuring diversity of archaeological assemblages in general, and of fish assemblages in particular.     

An Interdisciplinary Human-Environmental Examination of Effects Consistent with the Anthropocene in the Lower Illinois River Valley

Using archaeological and ecological data of animal communities, and fish communities in particular, we test for evidence consistent with the Anthropocene in the lower Illinois River valley across millennia. Environmental impacts by preindustrialized peoples may be minor compared to current alterations; however, this hypothesis is untested and should be assessed. Using the relative abundance of fish taxa, we tested for differences among archaeological and modern time periods, taking advantage of published zooarchaeological data sets and newly analyzed data. Collections from all archaeological time periods differed significantly from modern collections, but the relative abundance of fishes did not differ significantly among archaeological time periods. Sociopolitical context, material culture, plant-based subsistence patterns, and the use of animal classes shifted temporally, but these differences did not extend to the relative abundance of fish families. Our results suggest that dominating human influences on fish communities did not occur prior to the Late Woodland period in the lower Illinois River.     

The value of sieving of grave soil in the recovery of human remains: an experimental study of poorly preserved archaeological inhumations

The aim of this work is to assess the effects of sieving basal grave fills, following lifting of visible skeletal remains on the recovery of human bones and loose teeth in poorly preserved inhumation burials. The experiment was carried out during excavations at the 7th–9th century AD cemetery site at Whitby, England. Burials generally consisted of degraded bone fragments and/or soil stains. In each grave (N = 70 adult burials), all visible human remains were hand-collected on site; following this, the soil remaining in the grave was recovered and sieved successively through 8 mm, 4 mm and 2 mm meshes. No bone or dental fragments in the 2–4 mm fraction were identifiable to skeletal element. Approximately one third of the total weight of bone, and one third of the total numbers of teeth were recovered in the 4–8 mm and >8 mm sieved fractions. It is concluded that sieving down to 4 mm is adequate for recovery of adult skeletal remains at the study site. It would be useful to conduct similar sieving experiments at other archaeological cemetery sites to provide data on recovery when bone survival is good, and in subadult burials.     

Bone Degradation and Environment: Understanding,Assessing and Conducting Archaeological Experiments Using Modern Animal Bones

Archaeological experiments that use modern bones to replicate past animal bone assemblages have often failed to consider the effects of environment, storage and preparation on modern bones. Often, these experiments make little mention of the conditions to which bones were subject during their storage and preparation for use in experiments. In other instances, these variables are reported but not considered as factors that contribute to the nature of the results obtained. This study considers previously reported data concerning the degradation of frozen bones (−20°C), and bones exposed to hot, dry conditions (40°C), and presents new data for bones exposed to room temperature environments (22°C) and refrigerated environments (2°C), and bones that are frozen (−20°C) and then thawed (22°C). These conditions are all relevant to understanding the nature of bone degradation and the use of bones in modern archaeological experimentation. This article also surveys a range of previously reported experiments that utilise modern bones to create analogies to the past and considers different methodological approaches and their relationship to the condition of bones at the time of their fracture and fragmentation. The longitudinal data presented in this study demonstrate differential rates of bone degradation over time in various environmental conditions. This degradation results in dramatic changes in bone fracture morphology, bone strength and utility for bone tool production. These observations have significant implications for experiments that utilise modern bones, especially when experimental data are used to create analogies to the archaeological past. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessing XRF for the geochemical characterization of radiolarian chert artifacts from northeastern North America

The purpose of this paper is to emphasize the benefits of adopting non-destructive energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF) as a first-order technique to determine chert whole-rock geochemistry for archaeological sourcing. Chemical signatures for the Touladi and La Martre prehistoric quarries from the lower St. Lawrence and Gaspé Peninsula region of Quebec, Canada, are determined and serve as references to test the provenance of regional chert artifacts. Chert experimental flakes, created from quarry geological hand samples, are analyzed and used to validate the method. Archaeological flakes and tools recovered from three archaeological sites are analyzed and tested against quarry samples. Geochemical diagrams and Principal Component Analysis are used to establish artifact-quarry relationships. The effects of surface weathering on the geochemical analysis of archaeological chert artifacts are presented. Sample restoration and research avenues are discussed and proposed to further enhance the robustness of future chert geochemical data sets.     

Animal Resource Exploitation among the Virgin River Puebloans in the American Southwest

Abstract

A review of the literature documenting faunal remains recovered from 16 archaeological sites attributed to the Virjin River Puebloan (VRP) tradition (ca. 300 B.C.–A.D. 1200) of the American Southwest was conducted to identify the importance of wild animal resources to the subsistence strategy. The Number of Individual Specimens (NISP) was counted (NISP = 16,386) and sorted by taxa and animal size categories to explore differences in the distributions of faunal remains by archaeological recovery strategy, site type, physiographic location, and chronology. The most significant factor in the differential use of animal resources among the VRPs was physiographic location. Desert lowland sites had greater species diversity. Sites in the intermediate St. George Basin had more large mammals such as deer, and sites located on the higher plateau had more small mammals such as lagomorphs. These results indicate that the subsistence strategy varied across diverse environmental conditions, but animal resources were always an integral part of the VRP adaptation until their abandonment of the region in the early 13th century A.D.     

Avian Remains from Late Pre-colonial Amerindian sites on Islands of the Venezuelan Caribbean

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the results of the analyses of 3793 bird remains archaeologically recovered from seven late pre-Hispanic sites (～AD 1000–1500) on islands of the Venezuelan Caribbean. In order to address subsistence and manufacturing uses of bird bones, we first discuss the recovery process of this unique sample. We proceed to investigate the bones' archaeological contexts as well as the taphonomy in play and analyze diverse bone categories. We found that indigenous peoples consistently targeted several families of birds for food or feathers or both, and that avian bones were used for fashioning tools and adornments. We also discuss possible signatures of island campsite seasonal occupancy as inferred from the bio-ecology of the identified bird taxa. The data suggest that the differentiation of nesting grounds between the Red-footed and Brown Booby in the Southeastern Caribbean may be a result of anthropogenically-induced adaptation. The findings discussed in this paper open challenging avenues for assessing long-term changes in bird communities including the dynamics of resident and wintering bird populations.     

Fish bone chemistry and ultrastructure: implications for taphonomy and stable isotope analysis

This paper reviews the ultrastructure and chemistry of fish bone, with an emphasis on zooarchaeology and stable isotope analysis. On the basis of the chemical composition of the collagen and the relationships between the collagen and mineral phases, fish bone is more susceptible to biotic and abiotic degradation than mammalian bone and is therefore less likely to be recovered in archaeological deposits. The amino acid composition of fish bone differs from that of mammals, most notably with respect to hydroxyproline content. The C:N ratio of fish collagen is, however, very similar and slightly lower than mammalian collagen, and thus the traditional range of acceptable C:N ratios for archaeological bone collagen (2.9–3.6) should not be shifted or extended for fish on the basis of the amino acid composition of collagen. An extensive survey of published archaeological bone collagen C:N ratios demonstrates that fish collagen from archaeological contexts tends to have significantly higher C:N ratios than mammalian collagen. The elevated C:N ratios in fish bone collagen may be the result of abiotic degradation processes that occur within the bone after death, the presence of exogenous humic contaminants, or endogenous lipid contaminants.     

Fish ’n chips: ZooMS peptide mass fingerprinting in a 96 well plate format to identify fish bone fragments

Fish are a large, highly diverse, and anthropologically important group of vertebrates. However, fish bones are underrepresented in the archaeological literature because they are less stable than those of other taxa and identification of bone to species is often difficult or impossible. We explore a new identification system, ZooMS (Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry), which is based upon protein barcoding. As proteins can be cleaved enzymatically and analyzed by mass spectrometry in a repeatable way, protein barcoding is used widely in microbiological contexts for quick and inexpensive protein identification; mass spectra reflect the differences in protein sequence and can therefore be reproducibly linked to a particular protein or protein fragment. ZooMS uses peptide fingerprinting of bone collagen as a method for rapid identification of archaeological bone. This has involved the identification of masses related to peptides of known sequence. For mammals, sufficient sequence information is available for this approach but for groups, such the teleost fish, species are highly diverse and there are few available collagen sequences. Here we report a preliminary investigation into the identification of fish species by peptide mass fingerprinting that does not require sequence information. Collagen mass spectra are used to identify eight species of bony fishes (Osteichthyes) from four orders: Clupeiformes, Salmoniformes, Gadiformes, and Perciformes. The method is applied to both modern and archaeological fish remains and offers the capacity to identify traditionally unidentifiable fish fragments, thus increasing the Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) and providing invaluable information in specialized contexts.     

Fish Processing in the Mediterranean: Varying Traditions,Technologies and Scales of Production with Particular Reference to the Eastern Mediterranean

Research into the processing of marine resources along the Mediterranean coasts in antiquity reveals an uneven picture. The archaeological evidence for the systematic processing of fish and seafood in the western part is abundant and varied. Here, the production of salted fish and fish sauces seems to have been an important factor contributing to economic growth in many locations. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean, however, archaeological evidence for the processing of marine resources is much less common and is often indirect. Large-scale processing plants are virtually absent from the archaeological record and there are few studies of the remains of fish and shellfish or of other material evidence relating to fish preservation and commerce. Yet written evidence on the subject abounds, but places heavy emphasis on consumption and commerce rather than production. This paper describes the evidence and explores possible reasons for this imbalanced representation in an attempt to assess the actual importance of the processing of marine resources across the whole Mediterranean region. Issues discussed are the shifting emphasis on fish processing across space and through time, archaeological research agendas and methodologies, resource availability and abundance and, finally, issues of scale and visibility.     

Identifying wine markers in ceramics and plasters using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Experimental and archaeological materials

The identification of the organic residues preserved in archaeological materials yields good insights into understanding food production, trade and consumption. Wine is one of the most important beverages produced, traded and consumed in the Mediterranean area. Consequently, it is important to identify its presence in ancient materials. Nevertheless, the identification of wine markers is still an object of discussion. We present here the results obtained from analysing different materials using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), which allowed for the identification of tartaric acid and other markers of wine. The method was first tested on experimental and traditional materials that have been used until recently to store and/or produce wine and was then used for investigating archaeological materials. The experiments also involved the degradation of wine through cooking, drastic heating and burial for seven years. The results from the analysis of ceramic and plaster materials are discussed.     

Developing baseline data to understand environmental change: a geochemical study of archaeological otoliths from the Coorong,South Australia

Otoliths are calcium carbonate structures found in the inner ear of teleost fish. While they are routinely studied by marine scientists, analyses of otoliths recovered from archaeological sites in Australia and the Pacific have generally been restricted to identification of species and sometimes the fish age. Otoliths can also provide information on the season of catch, and, through trace element analysis, allow the reconstruction of environmental conditions experienced by fish. In this study, we use otoliths from mid- to late Holocene aged archaeological shell middens at the Coorong (South Australia) to examine species present, season of catch, age of fish and environmental conditions experienced by fish. Results demonstrate that the majority of the fish (identified as Argyrosomus japonicus and Acanthopagrus butcheri) were caught in freshwater environments during the warm season, and had grown to an age and size indicative of their having reached sexual maturity. This study provides data indicating fluctuating levels of salinity in the estuary, which are significantly lower than the hypersaline conditions experienced today. Ultimately, this project highlights the usefulness of conducting more detailed investigations of otoliths, including geochemical analyses, to address a wide range of research questions in archaeology and palaeoenvironmental research.     

Fishing gear from the Roman period in the Netherlands: An overview

This paper presents an overview of fishing gear recovered from Roman period sites in the Netherlands. Fish hooks, line sinkers, net sinkers, floaters, wickerwork fish traps, canoes with live wells and fish tanks have been identified. These artefacts provide additional insight into the widespread practice of fishing and thus of fish consumption during this time period and is a valuable addition to research on archaeological fish bone remains.     

Shellfishing and the Colonization of Sahul: A Multivariate Model Evaluating the Dynamic Effects of Prey Utility,Transport Considerations and Life-History on Foraging Patterns and Midden Composition

ABSTRACT

Archaeological evidence of shellfish exploitation along the coast of Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea) points to an apparent paradox. While the continental record as a whole suggests that human populations were very low from initial colonization through early Holocene, coastal and peri-coastal sites dating to that time are dominated by small, low-ranked, littoral taxa to the near-complete exclusion of large, higher ranked, sub-littoral species, precisely the opposite of theory-based expectations, if human populations and predation rates were indeed as low as other data suggest. We present a model of shellfish exploitation combining information on species utility, transport considerations, and prey life-history that might account for this apparent mismatch, and then assess it with ethnographic and archaeological data. Findings suggest either that high-ranked taxa were uncommon along the Pleistocene coastlines of Sahul, or that abundant and commonly taken high-ranked prey are under-represented in middens relative to their role in human diets largely as a function of human processing and transport practices. If the latter reading is correct, archaeological evidence of early shellfishing may be mainly the product of subsistence activities by children and their mothers.     

Core Use-Life Distributions in Lithic Assemblages as a Means for Reconstructing Behavioral Patterns

Artifacts with varying use-lives have different discard rates and hence are represented unequally among archaeological assemblages. As such, the ability to gauge the use-lives of artifacts is important for understanding the formation of archaeological assemblage variability. In lithic artifacts, use-life can be expressed as the extraction of utility, or work potential, from existing stone volume. Using experimental data and generalized linear modeling, this study develops models of artifact use-life on cores in the form of reduction intensity. We then apply these models to two archaeological case studies to (a) reconstruct the reduction intensities of archaeological cores and (b) investigate the survivorship curves of these archaeological cores across the reduction continuum using the Weibull function. Results indicate variation in core reduction and maintenance with respect to raw material properties and place use history and implicate evolutionary differences between Early Stone Age hominins and Holocene modern humans.     

Bone survival: The effects of sedimentary abrasion and trampling on fresh and cooked bone

It is commonly assumed that, at least when considering similar sized animals, the bones from all taxa stand an equal chance of preservation. This paper summarizes one aspect of a larger study undertaken in order to assess whether this assumption is true, based on the results of experiments and observations into the effects of a range of pre-depositional processes. The rates of bone destruction by sedimentary abrasion and by trampling are determined for small mammal, fish and frog bones. Patterns of bone loss and fragmentation are examined both between species and within the skeleton, for fresh and boiled bone. It is shown that there is considerable interspecies variation in the ability of bones to withstand these physical forces. Frog bone proved particularly resistant, while within the fish, bone from the Gadidae was less resilient than might be expected, given its predominance in British Medieval archaeological sites and coastal sites of all periods. Within the skeleton, bone shape appears to be a very important determinant of relative survival. Boiling dramatically reduces bone's resistence to destruction. The physical properties of fresh, boiled and burnt bone are compared mechanically, and the dramatic loss of strength induced by heating is demonstrated. The often voiced assumption that fish bone is more prone to destruction than mammal bone is shown to have some validity. The results add more evidence to support the view that comparison of species abundance by fragment counts may not always be appropriate, and that interpretation of skeletal element frequencies should be approached with caution.     

The Efficiency of Flotation Compared with Other Methods for Recovering Assemblages of Terrestrial and Aquatic Gastropods from Archaeological Deposits,with Reference to the Site of Pico Ramos (Basque Country,Spain)

ABSTRACT

We analysed assemblages of shells of land snails and small aquatic and wetland gastropods from a late Mesolithic-early Neolithic deposit in the cave of Pico Ramos (Basque Country). Shells were recovered by hand during excavation and all excavated deposit was processed by flotation, with a 250 μm mesh to recover floating material and a 1.0 mm mesh to recover the heavy fraction. The total assemblage comprised 5780 individuals (MNI) among 33 taxa, the sieved sub-assemblage having the highest proportions of these (2841 MNI in 31 taxa) and the hand-picked sub-assemblage the lowest (698 MNI in 11 taxa). Eleven taxa were absent from the flotation sub-assemblage, although the recovered MNI (2241; 39% of the total MNI) was high. The palaeoecological implications of the results are considered. Adult and large-sized juvenile shells of the edible land snail Cepaea nemoralis are abundant in the hand-picked sub-assemblage, but it is the absence of small-sized juvenile shells in the flotation and wet-sieved sub-assemblages that permits the inference that the species was collected for consumption. Wet sieving is therefore essential, both for interpreting hand-picked samples and in particular for the recovery of representative assemblages of land molluscs.