1870—1914年英国的济贫法制度

1870—1914年英国的济贫法制度仍然遵循1834年新济贫法所确立的“济贫院内救济原则”。由于社会条件的变化,英国的济贫法制度在1870—1914年进行了一定程度的改革,但是,这种以对贫困的消极被动性救济而不是积极主动性预防为基本特征的济贫法制度已经不能适应英国社会发展的需要。然而,由于特殊的政治原因以及济贫法制度本身的改革,英国的济贫法制度作为以社会保险制度为核心内容的现代社会保障制度的补充而暂时保存下来。     

19世纪英国济贫院制度评析

济贫在英国有着久远的传统,从17世纪开始,济贫院在英国逐步发展起来,1834年后,“院内救济”成为新济贫法体系的核心。济贫院遵循“劣等处置”和“济贫院检验”两个原则,济贫法委员会希望通过济贫院的威慑作用,促使贫民自力更生,减少济贫开支。济贫院在英国社会保障制度和福利国家形成过程中起到不可忽视的作用。学术界对济贫院的评价存在较大的争议,本文拟对这一制度进行评析,希望引起学术界对这一制度的更多关注。     

16世纪威尼斯的贫困与济贫问题

16世纪的欧洲经历了一场普遍的贫困危机,欧洲各国政府纷纷采取了各种济贫措施,以缓解贫困问题对社会造成的压力,天主教城市共和国威尼斯也不例外。通过颁布济贫法和改革大兄弟会等旧式救济组织,威尼斯引导宗教慈善组织朝着世俗化方向发展,从而建立起行之有效的近代济贫制度,有效地缓解了贫困问题造成的压力。威尼斯的经验表明,在推动近代早期欧洲济贫活动世俗化的诸因素中,最重要的因素是社会环境,而非传统上认为的宗教因素。     

英国都铎王朝的济贫税及赋税精神

为消除持续发生的社会贫困现象,都铎政府通过颁布系列《济贫法》,将教会主导的慈善捐款转变为政府强制征收的济贫税。济贫税是在地方实践基础上创建的新税。它以教会堂区为征税单元,自定税率,定期征收,税款用于救济本地贫困家庭,是一种议会授权的地方税。济贫税的出现标志着英国赋税功能从单纯获取财政收入,向直接用之于民、调节贫富差距的社会治理转变。税款用于国家内政和征收常规化成为英国近代赋税制度发展的原则。     

浅析维多利亚时代的济贫政策

英国的维多利亚时代(1837-1901)是英国最强盛的时期,即"日不落时期",也是英国工业革命发展的顶点,大英帝国经济文化发展的高峰期。然而,在这个"最美好的时代"里也充满了贫困和社会的矛盾。这一时期,英国出台了相应的济贫法案,建立大量的济贫院,福利思想在英国发展,并为以后福利国家的形成奠定了基础,对英国的社会经济发展带来了深远的影响。     

论十七、十八世纪英国政府的济贫问题

英国在近代早期出现了历史上最严重的流民问题 ,政府为此颁布了一系列的法令法规 ,确立了济贫原则 ,这些原则在 1 7世纪和 1 8世纪英国的济贫工作中仍发挥着重要作用。英国政府在实践过程中注意倾听反对意见 ,不断进行调整 ,使立法趋于完善 ,经过一个多世纪的实践 ,当它完全不能适应社会发展的需要时 ,遂进行了彻底改革。这一时期教区及其官员在英国社会救济工作中扮演着十分重要的角色 ,由于权力过分集中也出现了腐败问题。随着时代的发展 ,教区作为济贫体制中的主要管理单位已经不能满足社会发展的需要 ,改革成为必然。     

从慈善到公益:伦敦济贫改革与近代慈善救济院制度

16世纪中叶伦敦济贫改革是英国济贫改革的先驱,是政界、知识界与商界合力的结果,其主要成果是五所王室慈善救济院的建立与近代慈善救济院制度的初步形成.伦敦王室慈善救济院以政府主导和差别救济为标志,成为世俗政府化解社会问题、实现社会转型的有效工具.伦敦济贫改革的成功推动了地方城市甚至国家层面的济贫改革,为英国济贫制度从宗教慈善向世俗公益的全面转型开辟了道路.     

季节性的济贫恤穷行政:宋朝社会救济的一般特征

宋朝社会救济事业发达 ,救济范围空前广泛。由于传统农业经济的季节性波动 ,使得宋朝的济贫恤穷行政往往呈现出季节性特征。内容主要包括春夏两季的医疗救济、冬季的饥寒救济和春季匮乏的救济。这些救济事项在中国古代社会救济史上处于较高水平 ,但仍属于传统的被动性的救济。这是宋朝以至中国古代社会救济的一般特征 ,也是与现代社会救济和社会保障的主动性救济相区别的一个重要标志。尽管与现代社会救济相比 ,宋朝社会救济仍未脱离传统社会救济的统治者恩赐性质 ,但在救济属性上已发生了较大的改变 ,即更为注重救济的实效性 ,而非救济的象征性。如果说以先秦时期为代表的社会救济传统更多属于“礼”的范畴的话 ,则宋朝的社会救济无疑更多地属于制度的范畴     

美国的济贫原则及其在南北战争前的政策实践

美国的济贫政策是在两个重要原则基础上建立起来的,一是强调社会等级与维持社会秩序,二是工作伦理观念。它们之间的相互影响决定了美国人在贫困问题上的根本立场,即认为贫困的根源是穷人自身的陋习。这导致了南北战争前美国的济贫政策带有很大的屈辱性特征。但另一方面,美国人也将济贫政策视为维护社会稳定的手段,使得人们日益重视济贫政策,从而推动了南北战争前济贫政策的控制权从地方政府向州政府的转移。     

自救与互助:托马斯·查尔莫斯的济贫思想

英国工业化时期贫困问题较为严重,苏格兰社会活动家托马斯·查尔莫斯通过考察分析英国的贫困问题,提出了自己的济贫主张。与同时代主流济贫观不同,查尔莫斯强调自立和互助在脱贫中的作用。他认为,贫困阶层应改善自身的生活习性以减少新生贫困人口,贫困者还应重视自救认知和自立能力的培养,建立自愿原则下的地方互助体系。查尔莫斯的济贫思想对英国济贫法改革和欧美慈善救助产生了深远影响。     

Faith,philanthropy and the aged poor in nineteenth-century England and Wales

In the last half of the nineteenth century, Victorians grappled with welfare issues regarding the aged poor as social investigators sought to explain their dependency and poverty. Elderly men and women who were unable to care for themselves, and without a family or community to attend to their needs, had few alternatives outside the workhouse in nineteenth-century England and Wales. Catholic homes for the elderly managed by communities of women religious such as the Sisters of Nazareth provided an important option to the aged poor who often needed both accommodation and medical care. These homes provided a unique form of social welfare which attracted the attention of Protestants as well as Catholics as benefactors. Protestant reformers, looking for different approaches to maintaining the aged poor, inspected these Catholic homes in order to develop their own institutional solutions. Perhaps more pointedly, this interaction between Protestants and Catholics offers a counter narrative to the usual histories that emphasise anti-Catholicism, sectarianism and conflict. Despite the anti-Catholic tenor of the times, the homes for the aged of the Sisters of Nazareth were recognized and funded by both Catholics and Protestants as they were seen as providing a much needed form of charitable aid for the aged poor. As an alternative to poor law workhouses, the institutions created and managed by Catholic women religious formed an integral part of the mixed economy of welfare in the nineteenth century.     

The role of charity in public relief, 1708–1871: Copenhagen as case

This article explores when and why charity vanished from public relief in Copenhagen and thereby differentiates itself from the traditional research field on welfare that focuses on studying the growth of taxation and social spending in the 19th century. This article reveals that charity was not solely a transfer of financial resources, but that charitable donations also entailed a cultural symbolism, which implied that charity was meant to support the local worthy poor. When the function of public relief underwent a transformation, especially at the beginning of the 19th century, the cultural symbolism of charity became incompatible with public relief. After the 1830s, the inhabitants of Copenhagen ceased to donate to public relief and instead donated charity to private philanthropy, which usually targeted the worthy poor for its help.     

Useful work for idle hands or a brightening and elevating influence? The introduction of the Brabazon Employment Scheme to Glasgow’s public institutions in the late 19th century

Women’s ability to effect changes in welfare policy during the later workings of the new Poor Law has been presented as a ‘marginal influence’ within past historiography. This perspective is contested in recent empirical work, which argues for a more positive view of female agency. The Brabazon Employment Scheme was a charitable initiative, which occupied the poor unable to take part in the routine work of public institutions. Findings from its operation in Glasgow demonstrate how women drew upon philanthropic experience as well as elected positions in the management of institutions to secure the scheme’s introduction in these settings. While the initiative originated in the English workhouses, local women extended the Brabazon activities to address gaps in welfare provision for asylum patients. In doing so, the article shows how organised charity continued to function as an avenue of support for the poor alongside municipal relief into the early 20th century.     

The Impact of Back Benchers in the Creation of Social Reform: The Indefatigable and Honourable Exertions of Mr Gilbert*

During the 18th century, back-bench members of parliament played a critical role in creating social policy. This article provides a case study of the political campaigns of the Lichfield MP, Thomas Gilbert, and his attempts at a comprehensive reform of the poor law in 1765 and 1782. These individual endeavours were energetic, sophisticated, but unallied to a particular agenda or based on Gilbert's original perspectives. Instead, he harnessed the power of local interests and extra-parliamentary forces, particularly magistrates, through the adept use of print culture in his later campaign to form social policy based on a broad political consensus. A skilled political operator, he used these same methods to help navigate his bills through parliament. To better fit the context, the campaigns were moulded around political expediency and influenced by the development of Gilbert's humanitarian reputation and the burgeoning of the press, parliamentary reporting, and political debate. The political environments of 1765 and 1782 were, therefore, different, and broader trends influenced the two campaigns. This article demonstrates the importance of the press to political campaigning and suggests that to be successful (in social policy at least) a would-be reformer was required to engage with a developing participatory political culture. However, given Gilbert's approach, the importance of ideology as a basis for social reform in an 18th-century context is questioned.     

Evaluating marital stability in late-Victorian Camberwell

What was the extent of marital breakdown and separation in a society where divorce was unlikely to be an option? This article investigates the status and longevity of the marriages of a group of parents whose children were admitted to the care of the poor law authorities in Camberwell in the latter part of the nineteenth century. It finds that spousal death or misfortune, rather than marital breakdown, were the primary reasons for a parent to send a child to the poor law authorities, and that most of the marriages of the parents in the sample remained intact. It also explores whether those who separated formed new co-residential relationships.     

18-20世纪俄国的国家与现代化

传统社会向现代社会的过渡常常导致社会冲突,解决冲突的方式不一,其中以改革和革命为主.当改革不足以解决尖锐的社会冲突之时,革命便不可避免,旧制度随之寿终正寝,而由国家实施的改革模式则力主法律的继承性和合理化变化.19-20世纪初的俄国则成为这样两种社会发展模式博弈的舞台.俄国通过革命解决了当时的社会冲突,其革命模式对许多亚非拉国家产生了深远影响.然而,这些采取革命方式解决冲突的国家多以失败告终,不仅未能步入现代化道路,反而使国家陷入混乱状态.现代化进程顺利与否完全取决于其自身的历史条件与外部因素,盲目效仿他人不足取.     

The development of the flour-milling industry in Spain: analysis of its historical evolution and architectural legacy

The second half of the 19th century, along with the first three decades of the 20th, saw the building of hundreds of flour mills in Spain, all based on new milling and sieving machinery developed after the industrial revolution. Unfortunately, very few of these early mills are now in use: most have disappeared, and many of those that are left have been abandoned. The present work examines the growth of the flour-milling industry in Spain from the mid-19th century, and discusses the typology, design and constructional features of its associated buildings. The information presented is the result of the study of a representative sample of these mills in central Spain, and could serve as a basis for the conservation, rehabilitation and reuse of this important agroindustrial heritage.     

A rediscovered people: the poor,the very poor and the destitute in the Northwest

The author of this piece, Dr Margaret Hanly, died before it could be refereed or published. The editors subsequently sought referee comments and these were very positive. Changes to the text were undertaken by the team at Family and Community History but the article remains largely as it was submitted to us. At its core is an engagement with the idea of the process of poor relief, with a particular focus on Lancashire. The article argues that in this spatial context, the poor law had a significant exclusionary impetus, seeking to keep down the numbers accepted for relief and the amounts paid to them.     

20世纪中国的社会转型与社会变革的两种思想和方式

在20世纪中国社会转型的过程中,革命与改良(改革)这两种变革思想和方式之间虽然有重大区别,但又是互补的,而且"你中有我,我中有你".两者在不同的历史时期各凸现其主导功能,也会相互转化,不可绝对地厚此薄彼,更不可只肯定一种而否定另一种.事实上,革命与改良是同一部乐曲的"双重变奏",两者的相生相克、相辅相成、交互辉映,共同组成了20世纪中华民族救亡图存、启蒙大众、革故鼎新的历史画卷,共同推进了中国社会的现代化.20世纪最后20多年的改革和发展趋势表明,中国尽管已从根本上摆脱了自我束缚的困扰,但进入新世纪后最需要的是居安思危,力戒盛世意识,增强忧患意识.