再论唐代的使职和职事官——李建墓碑墓志的启示

本文认为：在唐代,举凡没有官品的实职官位,都是使职,如史馆史宫、知制诰等。由於没有官品,使职常以“他官充某职”的方式来委任。使职的特徵,主要有三：（一）使职与掌权者之间有一种信任,有一定的“私”关系;（二）使职的权力和享有的好处,远多於类似职位的职事官,以致职事官以为使职“侵夺”了职事官原本的权益;（三）使职常不载於正...     

续文献通考馆和三通馆的馆职体系及其职掌

乾隆朝诏开的续文献通考馆和三通馆是为纂修“清六通”而设立的官方修史机构,稳定健全的馆职体系是续文献通考馆和三通馆纂修工作顺利展开的必要保障。根据“清六通”书前的《职名表》并结合其他档案文献不仅可以对续文献通考馆和三通馆的馆职体系有更加全面的认识,对各馆职的具体职掌亦能有更加细致的考察。总裁、纂修及各类勤务人员各司其职,通力合作,为完成“清六通”的纂修作出各自的贡献。     

唐代宰相的使职特徵和名号

受钱大昕和严耕望的启发,本文重新把唐宰相定位为一种无官品的“使职”（而非有官品的职事官）,就像节度使、盐铁使等使职一样,宰相只不过是皇帝任命的一个“使职”,辅佐皇帝治理国家。宰相的权力来自皇帝的授予,取决於皇帝对他的信任,有相当程度的私密关系。唐初,皇帝沿用隋朝的惯例,通常以三省长官为串相。贞观年间,逐渐改派其他官员（如侍郎等）出任宰相。由於宰相是一种使职,与其他使职一样,在初期往往有许多使职名号,称号不固定,有许多变动。但从高宗朝开始,已逐渐统一为“同三品”和“同平章事”两种。本文考察唐宰相的使职名号及其命名逻辑,务求更进一步理解唐代宰相之内涵。     

辽朝南面官研究——以碑刻资料为中心

碑刻资料证明,辽朝南面官的结衔总计包括10个方面的内容,依次为:功臣号、职、阶、官、散官、宪、勋、爵、邑(封)、赐。职是实职,官代表品级,其他皆为虚衔。官员在职、阶、官、勋四个方面的升迁并不同步,但官与职大致存在对应关系。根据碑刻复原的辽代南面官的散官系统,既不同于唐代的实职官,也不同于北宋前期的寄禄官。从门下省、尚书省及六部等机构的属官多作为官称而非职名来看,辽朝并未实行三省六部制,南面朝官的主要权力机构为枢密院和中书省。     

谈士山盘铭文的“服”字义

本文从唐兰先生旧说出发,讨论新见士山盘铭文“服”字含义,认为其相当于《左传》、《国语》中所见的“职贡”一词,具体包括职事与贡赋两个方面。另外提出士山盘铭之方国“履”应即金文所见的“眉敖”之“眉”。最后指出士山盘铭对于探讨西周恭王时期的政治和先秦服制都具有重要意义。     

唐代武职事官阶官化论析

唐代武职事官阶官化是唐宋武官制度变革的先声。唐代官制的根本特点决定了武职事官需要广泛从事使职,以作为职官制度正常运行的补充。随着战争形势和军事制度的变化,武职事官兼任的使职长期化、固定化,造成了事实上的官、职分离,由此边军和禁军中普遍出现了将武职事官作为阶官的现象。唐代武职事官阶官化的发展与军赏形式转变之间存在着紧密的互动关系,并与文职事官阶官化的过程相联结。安史之乱期间,朝廷滥授高级武职事正员官,加速了武职事官阶官化的完成。     

北宋经学家陈祥道仕履考证

《宋史》及后世研究论陈祥道仕履多有不足。本文指出了以往研究中被忽略的陈祥道曾任国子监直讲之事,弥补了其仕履研究中的缺憾。分析了余嘉锡、冯茜二先生在陈祥道任馆职时间上的分歧,指明二家说法之失误。厘清了陈祥道元祐七年由秘书省正字到馆阁校勘再到太常博士兼馆阁校勘的仕宦历程,明确了陈祥道卒前所任官职确为太常博士兼秘书省正字。     

宋代官员分司制度

宋代官员分司主要有自请、责降、叙复和优待四种方式,神宗以前,自请和优待者居多,神宗以后则以责降为主。分司官有一定任期,但职事简单,并逐步虚化,直至全无,由此也导致了分司官之分司地与居住地由完全一致向完全分离转化。官员分司之初官职一般会发生变动,或升或降取决于分司方式。分司官可享有升转官资、荫补亲属为官等政治特权以及以俸禄为主的经济待遇,但分司官之间、分司官与现任官之间都存在一定差别,并因时而变。宋代官员分司制度既承袭了前代的做法,也有自己的创新,形成了比较完备的体系,但对宋代以后的作用并不明显。     

唐五代供奉官考

本文探讨了供奉官内涵自唐至五代的变化 ,指出 :在唐代前期 ,狭义的供奉官指中书、门下两省官 ,这也是供奉官最广泛的用法 ,广义的供奉官则还包括御史台官。高宗、武则天时期 ,出现台谏官“内供奉” ,是在法定名额之外所置谏官、御史等官的名目 ,“内供奉”的含义是“在某处服务” ,属唐人惯用法。玄宗“尊重宫闱” ,供奉官之名始加于宦官 ,出现宣徽供奉官 ,属加衔性质 ,职在为皇帝“备顾问”。五代时 ,供奉官成为属于武人的专有官名 ,其常规职司是在皇帝身边充当武官侍从 ,其最重要的作用是奉命出使 ,使命多与军事有关     

阙名《牛头山瑞圣寺碑》系南宋文考

清编《全唐文》卷990收有阙名《牛头山瑞圣寺碑》,其中诸位官员的职事官及散官名皆与宋制相合,尤其以"閤门舍人"一职始置于南宋乾道六年(1170),在碑文所涉及的官职中设置最晚,故当是南宋文。作者姓氏不详,名当作"灵"。清人劳格尝考此碑为北宋文,结论差近事实,但持据皆误,不可从。     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

The Chemists' Style of Thinking

Der Denkstil der Chemiker. Der Aufsatz diskutiert die Tragfähigkeit des Begriffes “Denkstil”, wie er von Alistair Crombie eingeführt und Ian Hacking aufgegriffen wurde, für das Verständnis dessen, wie das Fach Chemie historisch seine Identität ausgeprägt hat. Obwohl weder Crombie noch Hacking den Begriff “Denkstil” in Bezug auf einzelne Disziplinen verwendet haben, erscheint im Fall der Chemie seine Anwendung besonders vielversprechend, weil er hier hilft, ein zentrales Problem zu thematisieren – nämlich die Frage, wie es Chemikern trotz wechselnder Gegenstandsbereiche und theoretischer Umbrüche gelang, eine eigenständige und stabile Identität auszubilden. Nach einer Einführung in den Begriff “Denkstil”, argumentiert der Aufsatz, dass die Beständigkeit der Chemie als eines Faches wesentlich in ihren Laborpraktiken gründet, die ihrerseits wiederum die spezifische Art der Fragen bestimmten, die Chemiker in ihren Forschungen stellten bzw. die Form der Antworten, nach denen sie suchten. Folgende Merkmale kennzeichnen diesen “chemischen Denkstil” (1) eine spezifische, im Herstellen begründete Form des Wissens, (2) die Befassung mit einzelnen Stoffen und Materialien statt mit Materie im Allgemeinen und (3) eine Beobachtung von Natur besonders im Hinblick auf Transformationsprozesse. The Chemists' Style of Thinking. This paper discusses the relevance of the notion of “styles of scientific thinking” introduced by Alistair Crombie and revisited by Ian Hacking, for understanding how chemistry shaped its identity. Although neither Crombie nor Hacking applied this notion to individual disciplines, it seems appropriate to use it in the case of chemistry because it helps to address a puzzling issue: how did chemists manage to shape an identity of their own, despite shifting territories and theoretical transformations? Following a presentation of the notion of style, I will argue that the stable identity of chemistry is rooted in laboratory practices, which determined the specific questions that chemists put to nature as well as the answers to their questions. The “chemical style of thinking” is characterized by i) a specific way of knowing through making, ii) the concern with individual materials rather than matter in general and iii) a specific commitment to nature.