The U.S. Public Health Service and smoking in the 1950s: the tale of two more statements

During the 1950s, the United States Public Health Service prepared two statements on the link between smoking and lung cancer that have not been recognized by other historians. This article employs extended discussions of these two statements as vehicles to explore both internal developments at the federal health agency and larger questions surrounding the disciplinary emergence of chronic disease epidemiology. The primary cast of characters includes Surgeons General Leonard A. Scheele and Leroy E. Burney, Lewis C. Robbins (a lower-ranking Public Health Service officer, who had chief responsibility for the agency's smoking-related programs from 1958 through 1962 and who left behind a daily professional diary), and Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) editor John H. Talbott. These men, and others, are seen grappling (at varying levels of engagement) with the appearance of what we now recognize as a profoundly different way of understanding chronic disease causation, which centers on survey-taking and statistical analysis of risk factors.     

Old medicine in a new bottle

Arthur Kleinman, Peter Kunstadter, E. Russell Alexander, and James L. Gale, eds. Medicine in Chinese Cultures: Comparative Studies of Health Care in Chinese and Other Societies. Washington, D. C. U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Public Health Service. National Institutes of Health. 1975. xvi and 803 pp. Maps, tables, notes, references, and index. $11.00.     

The dearth of the clinic: lead,air, and agency in twentieth-century America

By surveying myriad ways that twentieth-century American experts and nonexperts grappled with the health implications of aerial exposures to lead or substances that may have contained lead, this paper urges medical historians' attention toward environments-workplaces, homes and the outdoors-and their extrabodily ontology. Health histories framed around dust, toxins, fumes, and pollution rather than around particular diseases challenge long-accepted narratives, such as Hibbert Hill's old generalization about a "New Public Health" shift from "the environment to the individual." Greater environmental focus can also advance "bottom-up" health history. Pushing the gaze of twentieth-century medical and public health historians beyond hospitals, "public health" departments, clinically confirmable disease, and "patient" roles, it draws historians' attention to health-related realms in which laypeople often claimed greater knowledge and competence.     

Revisiting nineteenth-century U.S. interventionism in Central America: capitalism,intrigue, and the obliteration of Greytown

In October 2016 the Congressional Research Service published its latest version of “Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad.” One of the “instances” occurred in 1854, and the entry reads in its entirety: “Naval forces bombarded and burned San Juan del Norte (Greytown) to avenge an insult to the American Minister to Nicaragua.”¹1. Torreon, Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad, 1798–2016, 4.View all notes The following article posits that Greytown was not destroyed to avenge an insult to an American diplomat. Rather, two groups of prominent American businessmen used this and related events and their antecedents as pretexts to enlist the federal government in destroying Greytown. One group, representing a U.S.-owned isthmian steamboat company, sought to seize the port of Greytown as a private fiefdom; the other wanted it as the prospective capital of a new colony based on a huge, dubious land grant they owned.     

BOOKNOTES

Annette Baker Fox, The Politics of Attraction: Four Middle Powers and the United States Edward N. Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory Charles R. Frank, Jr., Foreign Trade and Domestic Aid Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, American Espionage: From Secret Service to CIA Philip J. Farley, Stephen S. Kaplan, and William H. Lewis, Arras Across the Sea Carol Corder, Planned Cities: New Towns in Britain and America Charles H. Levine, ed., Managing Human Resources: A Challenge to Urban Governments Harvey H. Kaiser, The Building of Cities Development and Conflict David Rogers, Can Business Management Save the Cities? The Case of New York Eugene Lewis, American Politics in a Bureaucratic Age: Citizens. Constituents. Clients and Victims Fred A. Kramer, Dynamics of Public Bureaucracy Fred A. Kramer, ed., Perspectives on Public Bureaucracy Grover Starling, Managing the Public Sector Christopher C. Hood, the Limits of Administration B. Guy Peters, The politics of Bureaucracy: A Comparative Analysis George W. Downs, Jr., Bureaucracy, Innovation, and Public Policy Richard Steiner, Managing the Human Service Organization: From Survival to Achievement Michael J, White, Michael Radnor, and David A, Tansik, Management and Policy Science in American Government     

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the scientific concept of racial nervous resistance

In 1932, the U.S. Public Health Service began a study of untreated syphilis among black men in Macon County, Alabama. This project, later known as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, became one of the most notorious ventures of twentieth-century medicine. Much has been written on it. Historians have suggested that scientific racism strongly influenced the study. But specific links between earlier racial science and the scientific conduct of the study have remained unexplored. The examination in this paper of the concept of a racially determined resistance to syphilis in the nervous system establishes such a link. Discussion of nervous resistance to syphilis appeared in the medical literature in the early twentieth century as a conjecture about the natural inferiority of blacks. White physicians used the concept to interpret racial differences in neurosyphilis as evidence of the rudimentary development of the brain. A small community of African American physicians joined other national experts in syphilis who chose to explain apparent racial differences through alternate mechanisms. But the scientific advisors to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study favored the concept of a racial resistance to neurosyphilis and steered the early design of the study to help to elucidate it. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was an examination of untreated syphilis, but it also became a demonstration of a putative racial characteristic of syphilis long considered evidence of the natural inferiority of blacks. An examination of the concept of racial nervous resistance and its influence on the research in Macon County helps to define the influence of scientific racism on this notorious medical study.     

The Spatial Dynamics of Poliomyelitis in the United States: From Epidemic Emergence to Vaccine-Induced Retreat, 1910-1971

This article seeks to advance an understanding of the spatial dynamics of one of the great emergent viral diseases of the twentieth century-poliomyelitis. From an apparently rare clinical condition occurring only sporadically or in small outbreaks before the late nineteenth century, poliomyelitis had, by the early 1950s, developed into a globally distributed epidemic disease. But, from 1955, continued growth was suddenly and dramatically reversed by the mass administration of inactivated (killed) and live (attenuated) poliovirus vaccines. After almost half a century of vaccine control, the world now stands on the brink of the global eradication of the disease. Against this background, the article draws upon information included in the U.S. Public Health Service's Public Health Reports and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report to examine the spatial dynamics of poliomyelitis during the phases of epidemic emergence (1910-1955) and vaccine-induced retreat (1955-1971) in the United States. It is shown that epidemic emergence was accompanied by shifts in the spatial center of activity from early diffusion poles in the northeastern states, to the western seaboard, and then finally to cover all the states of the Union. This was accompanied by accelerating epidemic propagation. The introduction of mass vaccination from the mid-1950s realigned spatial transmission of the disease, producing increased spatial volatility in the geographical center of activity and heightened dependence of epidemic outbreaks upon endemic reservoirs in the most populous states. Finally, the empirical results are generalized to suggest that the emergence and reemergence of many infectious diseases is a distinctively geographical process.     

BOOK REVIEWS

Victor L. Arnold ed. , Alternatives to Confronation – a National Policy Toward Regional Change
Lewis Benton, ed. , Private Management and Public Policy: Reciprocal Effects
Constance Ewing Cook , Nuclear Power and Legal Advocacy
Samuel S. Epstein , The Politics of Cancer
Charles R. Foster, ed. , Comparative Public Policy and Citizen Participation: Energy, Education, Health and Urban Issues in the U.S. and Germany
William J. Crimshaw , Union Rule in the Schools: Sig- City Policies in Transformation
Daniel A. Mazmanian and Jeanne Nienaber , Can Organizations Change: Environmental Protection, Citizen Participation, and the Corps of Engineers
Donald Mickelwait, Charles F. Sweet, and Elliott R. Morss. New Directions in Development
Warren B. Miller and R. Kenneth Godwin , Psyche and Demos: Individual Psychology and the Issues of Population
Stuart S. Nagel and Marian G. Neef , Decision Theory and the Legal Process
Barry S. Rundquist, ed. , Political Benefits: Empirical Studies of American Public Programs
David Pearce Snyder, ed. , The Family in Post-Industrial America
Sidney Sonenblum , The Energy Connections: Between Energy and the Economy
Alan L. Sorkin , The Economics of the Postal System
Keith M. Wulff, ed. , Regulation of Scientific Inquiry: Societal Concern with Research     

LITERATURE REVIEWS

Books reviewed in this article:
A. Comments
B. Book Notes
Abney, Glenn and Thomas P Lauth The Politics of State and City Administration
Adams, William J and Christran Stoffaes, (eds) French Industrial Policy
Binkin, Martin, Military Technology and Defense Manpower
Elazar, aniel J Cities of the Prairie Revisited The Closing of the Metropolitan Frontier
Ginsberg, Benjamin The Captive Public How Mass Opinion Promotes State Power
Heath, Robert L and Richard Alan Nelson Issues Management Corporate Public Policymaking in an Information Society
Hunt, Morton Profiles of Social Research The Scientific Study of Human Interactions
Kaplan, Marshall and Peggy Cuciti (eds) The Great Society and itsLegacy wenty Years of U S Social Policy
Katz, Michael B In the Shadow of the Poorhouse A Social History of Welfare in America
Katzmann, Robert A. Institutional Disability The Sage of Transporation Policy for the Disabled
Liroff, Richard A Reformaing Air Pollution Regulation The Toil Trouble of EPA's Bubble
Lowi, Theodore J The Personal President Power Invested Promise Unflfilled
Mead, Walter J, Asbjorn Moseidjord, Dennis D Muraoka, and Philip E Sorenson Offshore Lands. Oil and Gas Leasing and Conservation on th Outer Continental Shelf
Muskie, Edmund, Kenneth Rush, and Kenneth W Thompson The President, the Congress and Foreign Policy
Openshaw, Stan Nuclear Power. Siting and Safety
Peters, B Guy American Public Policy Promise and Performance
Rosentraub, Mark S, (ed) Urban Policy Problems Federal Policy and Institutional Change
Story, Dale Industry, the State, and Public Policy in Mexico
Taylor, Ralph B, (ed) Urban Neighborhoods Research and Policy
Wesson, Robert and Heraldo Munoz, (eds) Latin American Views of U S Policy
Winston, Brian isunderstanding Media
Zurcher, Louis A, Milton L Boykin, and Hardy L Merritt Citizen Sailors in a Changing Society Policy Issues for Manning the United StatesNaval Reserve     

Book Notes

R. Douglas Arnold, Michael J. Graetz, and Alicia H. Munnell (Eds.), Framing the Social Security Debate: Values, Politics, and Economics .
Eugene Bardach, Getting Agencies to Work Together: The Practice and Theory of Managerial Craftsmanship .
J. Patrick Dobel, Public Integrity .
Milton Fisk, Toward a Healthy Society: The Morality and Politics of American Health Care Reform .
Marie Gottschalk, The Shadow Welfare State: Labor, Business, and the Politics of Health Care in the United States .
Graeme A. Hodge, Privatization: An International Review of Performance .
Donald F. Kettl, The Global Public Management Revolution: A Report on the Transformation of Governance .
Steven G. Koven, Public Budgeting in the United States: The Cultural and Ideological Setting .
George A. Krause, A Two-way Street: The Institutional Dynamics of the Modern Administrative State .
Michael T. McGuire and William H. Anderson, The U.S. Healthcare Dilemma: Mirrors and Chains .
Kenneth J. Meier and Jeff Gill, What Works: A New Approach to Program and Policy Analysis .
Karen Mossberger, The Politics of Ideas and the Spread of Enterprise Zones .
Kate O'Neill, Waste Trading among Rich Nations: Building a New Theory of Environmental Regulation.
William Simonsen and Mark D. Robbins, Citizen Participation in Resource Allocation .
John D. Wirth, Smelter Smoke in North America: The Politics of Transborder Pollution .     

Book Notes

Anderson, Odin W (1985) Health Services in the United States A Growth Enterprise Averch Harvey A 1985 A Strategic Analysis of Science and Technology Policy Baughrman, James L 1985 Television's Guardians The FCC and the Politics of rogramming, 1958–1961 Brown, Eugene J 1985 William Fulbright Advice and Dissent Bunker, Stephen G 1985 Underdeveloping the Amazon Extraction, Unequal Exchange, and the Failure of the Modern State Cofer, Donna Price 1985 Judges, Bureaucrats, and the Question of Independence A Study of the Social Security Administration Hearing Process Committee for Economic Development 1985 Investing in Our Childredn Corson, William R and Robert T Crowley 1985 The New KGB Engine of Saviet Power Daniel, Pete 1985 Breaking the Land The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco, and Rice Cultures Since 1880 Davis, Karen and Diane Rowland 1985 Care Policy New Directions for Health and Long-Term Care Downs, Donald Alexander 1985 Nazis in Skokie Freedom, Community and the First Amendement Durant, Robert F 1985 When Government Regulates Itsself EPA, TVA, and Poliution Control in the 1970s Ferman, Barbara 1985 Governing the Ungovernable City Political Skill Leadership, and the Moder Mayor Gray, Charies L. Jr and Jeffrey A Alson 1985 Moving America to Methanol A Plan to Replace Oil Imports, Reduce Acid Rain, and Revitalize Our Domestic Economy Jones, Bryan D 1985 Governing Buildings and Building Government A New Perspective on the Old Party Lane Jan-Enk ed 1985 State and Market The Politics of the Public and Private Laqueur, Walter 1985 A World of Secrets The Uses and Limits of Intelligence Layton, Edwin T (Rear Admiral U S N Ret) 1985 And I Was There Pearl Harbor and Midway-Breaking the Secrets Luttwak, Edward N 1985 Pentagon and the Art of War MacRae, Jr. Ducan 1985 Policy Indicators Linds Between Social Science and Public Debate Murphy, Jolhn F 1985 Punishing International Terronsts The Legal Framework for Policy Initiative Oseth, Jarnes M 1985 Regulating U S Intelligence Operations A Study In Definition of the National Interest Pascall, Glenn 1985 The Trillion Dollar Budget How to Stop The Bankrupting of America Percy Stephen L and Enc J Scott 1985 Demand Processing and Performance in Public Service Agencies Peterson Paul E, ed 1995 The New Urban Reality Reichley A James 1985 Religion in American Public Life Rhoads Steven E 1985 The Economist's View of the World Governments. Markets, and Public Policy Rose, Richard ed 1985 Public Employment in Western Nations Sharp, Gene 1985 Making Europe Unconquerable The Potential of Civilian-Based Deterrence and Defense Shotland, R Lance and Melvin M Mark eds 1985 Social Science and Social Policy Staniland, Martin 1985 What is Political Economy? A Study of Social Theory and Underdevelopment Swanstron, Todd 1985 The Crisis of Growth Politics Cleveland, Kucinich, and the Challenge of Urban Populism Weeks, Lewis E and Howard J Berman 1985 Shapers of American Health Care Policy An Oral History Wilson, James Q and Richard J Herrnstein 1985 Crime and Human Nature     

1950年美国媒体对马克南入藏事件的报道剖析

20世纪40年代,以美国国务院驻中国迪化领事馆副领事身份为掩护的中情局间谍马克南在中国新疆从事秘密谍报活动,并于新中国成立前夕率一行五人队伍自中国新疆秘密入藏。但《纽约时报》等美国媒体却矢口否认马克南的间谍身份,并指责"中国的宣传机器在制造美国特务案例"。美国媒体对马克南入藏事件的报道是历史真实与谎言的混合体,其报道内容的缺失,直接影响了美国民众对事实真相的全面了解和客观判断,对今日美国人"西藏观"的形成产生了消极的影响。     

The Ulster Unionist Party and the U. S. Role in the Northern Ireland Peace Process, 1994–2000

Since the beginning of the "Troubles," Ulster unionists generally have viewed American involvement in Northern Ireland as biased towards nationalists and "unwanted interference" in their internal affairs. Yet despite vehement condemnations, unionists made virtually no attempt to counteract Irish-American perceptions or to explain unionism to U. S. audiences. But from 1994 onwards, mainly in response to the expanding involvement of the Clinton administration in the peace process, the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) launched a sustained effort to engage the White House and get its views across in America. While some of these UUP initiatives got nowhere, others achieved a considerable degree of success, particularly the effort to convey unionist perspectives to the heart of White House policymaking.     

IV. LITERATURE REVIEW

Book Reviewed in this artices:
Geoffrey Blainey, The Causes of War
Manus Midlarsky, On War: Political Violence in the International System
Ronald Levy, Nearing the Crossroads: Contending Approaches to Contemporary American Foreign Policy
Morton H. Halperin, with the assistance of Priscilla Clapp and Arnold Kanter, Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy
F. S. Northedge, ed., The Foreign Policies of the Powers
Jeffrey L. Pressman and Aaron B. Wildavsky, Implementation
Arnold J. Meltsner, The Politics of City Revenue
Richard S. Bolan and Ronald L. Nuttall, Urban Planning and Politics
Dennis A. Rondinelli, Urban and Regional Development Planning: Policy and Administration
L. Harmon Zeigler and M. Kent Jennings, Governing American Schools
Elchanan Cohn and Stephen D. Millman, Economics of State Aid to Education
W. Norton Grubb and Stephan Michelson, States and Schools: The Political Economy of Public School Finance
Dale Mann, Policy Decision-Making in Education: An Introduction to calculation and Control
Paul R. Dommel, The Politics of Revenue Sharing
Alford, Robert R., Health Care Politics; Ideological and Interest Group Barriers to Reform
Federal Statistics , Report of the President's Commission
Stapleton, W. Vaughn, and Lee E. Teitelbaum, In Defense of Youth: A Study of the Role of Counsel in American Juvenile Courts
Nicholas Henry, Public Administration and Public Affairs     

Book Notes

Books reviewed in this article: Donald L. Alexander (Ed.), Telecommunications Policy: Have Regulators Dialed the Wrong Number? John J. Audley, Green Politics and Global Trade: NAFTA and the Future of Environmental Politics. William I. Bacchus, The Price of American Foreign Policy: Congress, the Executive, and International Affairs Funding. Arnold Birenbaum, Managed Care: Made in America. Thomas A. Birkland, After Disaster; Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events. James Bowman and Donald Menzel (Eds.), Teaching Ethics and Values in Public Administration Programs. Robert J. Duffy, Nuclear Politics in America: A History and Theory of Government Regulation. Marianne Githens and Dorothy McBride Stetson (Eds.), Abortion Politics: Public Policy in Cross-Cultural Perspective. Christopher Howard, The Hidden Welfare State: Tax Expenditures and Social Policy in the United States Joan Johnson-Freese and Roger Handberg, Space, The Dormant Frontier: Changing the Paradigm for the 21st Century. Jennie Jacobs Kronenfeld, The Changing Federal Role in U.S. Health Care Policy. Yong S. Lee (Ed.), Technology Transfer and Public Policy. James Midgley, Social Welfare in Global Context. Nancy C. Roberts and Paula J. King, Transforming Public Policy: Dynamics of Policy Entrepreneurs hip and Innovation. Denise Scheberle, Federalism and Environmental Policy: Trust and the Politics of Implementation. David E. Wildasin (Ed.), Fiscal Aspects of Evolving Federations.     

从"伊拉克门"到"情报门"——美国对萨达姆政权政策探析

美国当代有两次所谓"伊拉克门"丑闻:一次发生在海湾战前,以美国纵容伊拉克发展大规模杀伤性武器借以改善美伊关系为特征;另一次又称"情报门",发生在2003年伊拉克战争前,以美国政府夸大伊拉克大规模杀伤性武器的威胁度和紧迫性,为发动伊战寻求借口为特征。两次"伊拉克门"特征迥异,却都与大规模杀伤性武器紧密相关。大规模杀伤性武器成为美国处理对伊关系、制定对伊政策的核心因素。两次"伊拉克门"期间,随着国际环境以及战略重心的改变,美国的伊拉克政策也发生了巨大的转变,美国对伊外交政策的务实主义本质在两次"伊拉克门"丑闻中得到了充分的体现。     

从精神健康看美国华人的文化适应

华人作为美国的一个少数族群,其精神健康状况总体上好于当地主体族群,而其应对方式却较为独特。美国华人应对精神健康问题的态度与方式,从某些侧面反映了他们对主流社会文化的适应情况。作者认为,华人的“选择性同化策略”使他们在一定程度上减缓了主流社会的文化压力,并保持了较为良好的精神健康状态。     

American propaganda and Ireland during world war one: the work of the Committee on Public Information

Soon after America entered the war in April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson established the Committee on Public Information (CPI) which used the tools of propaganda and persuasion to fight the war in the US and in allied, enemy and neutral foreign countries. This article examines the CPI’s work in relation to Ireland and Irish issues during the First World War. Among the questions examined are: What was the nature of the CPI’s Irish work between 1917 and 1918? What does it reveal about first, the CPI and second, Wilson’s view of Irish-American loyalty during the war? Why did the CPI’s British and Irish services become involved in Irish military recruitment? Was there any contact between the CPI officials in London and their British counterparts in the Ministry of Information to co-ordinate the push to encourage Irishmen to enlist? How did the CPI negotiate a space for its messages in post-rising Ireland where home rulers, republicans, unionists and British authorities pursued their respective agendas? The article seeks to add an American dimension to the narrative of Ireland and the First World War and examines themes relating to Anglo-American co-operation on the Irish question and diasporic identity.     

American Presbyterians,Freedmen's Missions,and the Nile Valley: Missionary History,Racial Orders,and Church Politics on the World Stage

In the second half of the nineteenth century, American Presbyterian “home” and “foreign” missions developed parallel and mutually reinforcing policies towards freed slaves in Egypt, Sudan, and the U.S.A. as well as towards Egypt's indigenous Christians, the Copts. Yet the racial ideologies and social hierarchies of these three countries reflected distinct historical trajectories of migration and conquest. In the Nile Valley, American missionaries struggled to understand, address, and sometimes revise Egyptian and Sudanese social hierarchies, which they found alternately idiosyncratic or unjust. This essay conjectures that these interactions, in the long run, induced the Nile Valley missionaries to confront the lingering injustices and incongruities in American social hierarchies, particularly in the mid‐ to late twentieth century. In this way, the “foreign” mission experience had a backflow for missionaries and their church by raising questions about American racial orders and by strengthening a commitment to civil rights and social justice agendas.     

BOOK NOTES

Book reviewed in this article.
Royal United Service Institute and Brassey's, Defence Yearbook, 1978/79
Julian Critchley, Warning and Response: A Study of Surprise Attack in the 20th Century and an Analysis of its Lessons for the Future
Stuart E. Johnson with Joseph A. Yager, The Military Equation in Northeast Asia
L. Grainger, ed., Energy Resources: Availability and Rational Use
Albert Carnesale, etal., Options for U.S. Energy Policy
Andrew S. McFarland, Public Interest Lobbies: Decision Making on Energy
Mason Willrich and Richard K. Lester, Radioactive Waste: Management and Regulation
W. Scott Thompson and Donaldson D. Frizzell, eds., The Lessions of Vietnam
Jeffery M. Schevits, The Weaponsmakers: Personal and Professional Crisis During the Vietnam War