明代年例银制度形成探论

明代年例银制度是经过长期演变逐渐形成的一项军事供给制度。宣德十年(1435)首先出现京运银,历经景泰、天顺时期,京运银两中有一笔银两开始向"岁例"发生制度性转变的趋势;成化、弘治之际,"常数"、"岁运"、"岁例"、"年例"、"年例银"等名称的出现是这笔京运银两制度化发展的结果,标志着明代年例银制度的初步形成;嘉靖十六年(1537)年例银一年一发的规定以及年例银会计预算制的出现,意味着明代年例银制度的完全确立。年例银制度的形成和确立,改变了明代国家的军事供给体制,是明代军事财政史上的一个重大变革。     

明代“金花银”银锭元素组成的无损检测分析

目前对"金花银"银锭的专门研究比较缺乏,本研究利用X射线荧光能谱仪对上海博物馆所藏表面具有"金花银"三字戳记的6枚银锭和6枚普通银锭进行了无损元素组成分析,以此充实"金花银"银锭的研究。检测和分析结果表明:"金花银"银锭中的银含量较高,各表面都测得铁、铅、铜、金元素,其金的含量也较非"金花银"银锭明显偏高,表面可能有粉末形态的腐蚀产物,部分"金花银"银锭表面有结合紧密的汞元素;而非"金花银"银锭中的银含量具有个体差异,并且含金量均比"金花银"银锭的含金量低;此外,"金花银"银锭在形制上与同期的其他非"金花银"银锭有一定相似之处。分析结果为了解明代"金花银"银锭成分组成和制作方式提供了科学依据。     

Other ways to examine the finances behind the birth of Classical Greece

Although the birth of Classical Greece is often attributed to the constitutional reforms of Cleisthenes (508/507 BCE), the achievement of an economically minded government under the Peisistratid tyrant Hippias (527–510 BCE) potentially paved the way by advancing Athenian silver for exportation in international trade. It is proposed here that new silver technology, which initiated the transition from acquiring silver from ‘dry’ silver ores to silver-bearing lead ores, was introduced to Greece during the time of the Peisistratids (561–510 BCE). Massive exploitation of silver-bearing lead ores at Laurion in Attica, which later financed the construction of a war navy, appears evident in the lead pollution records of Greenland ice, lead isotopic analyses of sixth-century BCE Attic silver coins and late Iron Age Levantine hacksilver, and is reflected in the numbers of lead votive figurines at sanctuaries in Sparta. Against the backdrop of the threat of war with Persia and an imminent Spartan invasion which resulted in the overthrow of Hippias (510 BCE), it is considered that a political transition occurred because Greece was both geologically and politically disposed to adopt this labour-intensive silver technology which helped to initiate, fund and protect the radical social experiment that became known as Classical Greece.     

金代解盐使司银铤浅析

本文中的两笏金代解盐银铤,均出土河南省西峡县。经考证,与陕西临潼出土的两笏金代“解盐使司”银铤,出自同一铸地,是金代盐商向解盐使司购买钞引的入纳银铤。它不仅记录了明确的铸造时间、地点和重量,而且对金朝的盐池管理机构、金银铺号、榷货盐司的官吏等方面的记载详尽,为研究金代的盐课税制、金银行会制度、客商制度、白银在当时经济生活中的地位、作用及流通中所设置的管理机构、流通方式等提供了实物资料。     

17世纪初全球贸易在东亚海域的形成与发展

17世纪初,世界贸易形势发生了巨大变化,东来的欧洲殖民者为贩运中国的生丝和丝织品,在东亚海域展开了激烈的商业竞争,于是在东亚海域形成了全球贸易。而此时正值明朝政府在福建漳州月港开放海禁,准许私人出洋贸易,因此大量的中国海商涌向海外,在与欧洲殖民者激烈的商业竞争中,他们以敏锐的商业头脑和强烈的竞争意识取得了成功,使世界各地的白银源源不断地流入中国,使中国成为当时东亚海域的贸易中心。     

略论鸦片战争前后银贵钱贱的原因

清代自乾隆后期开始,银钱比价发生重要变化,始终处于银贵钱贱阶段。特别是鸦片战争前后,不少地区一两白银兑钱二千甚至更多,对民生、经济影响至巨,而对于其中的原因,建国以来多数学者把它归因于鸦片的大量输入导致的白银大量外流。我们认为,这种认识并不全面,导致鸦片战争前银贵钱贱的原因是多方面的,既有鸦片大量输入这个外部因素,也有清代货币体系本身的内部原因。     

The history of silver refining in New Spain, 16c to 18c: back to the basics

The refining of silver ores in New Spain was defined by the chemical nature of the silver ore. Argentiferous galena (lead sulphide) could only be refined by smelting (36% silver produced), irrespective of silver content, and amalgamation (64%) could only be applied to the silver sulphide ores. Both processes were transferred from Europe, but amalgamation was transformed by local expertise from a recipe of limited application to an industrial-scale solution for refining sulphidic silver ores. Its implementation shaped the environmental history of colonial silver refining in the New World. Mercury was consumed mainly through its chemical conversion into calomel, with minimal emissions of volatile mercury. Waste silt and liquid mercury in the soil and waterways were its main legacy. Smelting created a greater impact on the environment of New Spain, via lead in lead fumes as the main heavy metal issued to the air, and its depletion of woodlands. This article argues that a technical analysis of period refining practices in New Spain reorients our understanding of Spain’s imperial relations with its New World colonies, of the role of local knowledge in a global economy of silver production, and of environmental issues in colonial history. It thus speaks to the problem of unpacking the complex web of relations that composed early European imperialism, in which were enmeshed commodities such as silver, cotton and sugar.     

From commodity to money: The rise of silver coinage around the Ancient Mediterranean (sixth–first centuries bce)

The reasons why the Western Mediterranean, especially Carthage and Rome, resisted monetization relative to the Eastern Mediterranean are still unclear. We address this question by combining lead (Pb) and silver (Ag) isotope abundances in silver coinage from the Aegean, Magna Graecia, Carthage and Roman Republic. The clear relationships observed between ¹⁰⁹Ag/¹⁰⁷Ag and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁶Pb reflect the mixing of silver ores or silver objects with Pb metal used for cupellation. The combined analysis of Ag and Pb isotopes reveals important information about the technology of smelting. The Greek world extracted Ag and Pb from associated ores, whereas, on the Iberian Peninsula, Carthaginians and Republican‐era Romans applied Phoenician cupellation techniques and added exotic Pb to Pb‐poor Ag ores. Massive Ag recupellation is observed in Rome during the Second Punic War. After defeating the Carthaginians and the Macedonians in the late second century bce , the Romans brought together the efficient, millennium‐old techniques of silver extraction of the Phoenicians, who considered this metal a simple commodity, with the monetization of the economy introduced by the Greeks.     

银元主币流通与上海洋厘行市的更替

墨西哥鹰洋成为近代中国流通最广的银元主币,历时长达60余年之久。1914年后开铸的袁世凯像新币,逐渐取代鹰洋成为流通中的主币。上海钱业公所和其后的上海钱业公会深谙流通中主币的消长变化态势,审时度势,先后于1915年和1919年取消龙洋和鹰洋行市。鹰洋行市的取消进一步促使国币通行成为主币,使货币兑换市场逐步走向统一,降低社会交易成本;同时也为废两改元准备了条件,促进了近代货币统一化进程。     

清代银覆斛式套杯装饰工艺研究

故宫博物院收藏的银覆斛式套杯档案记载为明代,由十二件依次能叠放在一起的银杯组成,每件银杯均镶嵌黑色物质以在内壁形成历代名人高士典故为题材的装饰画,内底注释典故名称,外底标明斋堂款识,外壁其中一面注明制作材料来源的“大明皇帝赐金”字样。故宫博物院张丽研究员根据“醉卧瓮下”历史典故产生的时代背景,推测其制作时代定为清代。在我国,银器表面镶嵌黑色物质的工艺十分罕见,一些学者将银套杯镶嵌黑色物质的工艺称为“阴刻填黑漆”,而查阅资料发现银套杯的表面装饰工艺更可能为乌银镶嵌。乌银在国外被称为“niello”,是指一种或多种金属与硫在高温下生成的黑色金属硫化物,被用来装饰金、银和铜等金属器物。将乌银实施于金属器表面的工艺被称为乌银镶嵌。为了明确银套杯的表面装饰工艺,采用扫描电子显微镜-能谱仪、X射线荧光光谱法、X射线衍射法对其中一个银杯进行微观形貌观察,元素、物相进行分析。显微形貌观察结果表明黑色物质通过加热熔融的方法嵌入嵌槽,在固化后进行抛光使表面平整。能谱分析结果表明黑色物质由Cu、Pb、Ag和S元素组成,衍射分析结果表明检测样品中含有硫铜银矿。综合以上分析结果表明黑色物质为银/铜/铅硫化物形成...     

闽台财政改革与各方权力纠葛--雍正朝台湾县知县周钟蠧案解析

雍正三年,台湾县知县周钟蠧被控贪污,由于牵涉到闽台财政改革的大背景,此案引起了雍正皇帝的高度关注,并演变为震动闽台官场的一桩大案,涉案人等都被卷入了皇权与地方官员博弈的大漩涡。案件的审理过程,伴随着闽台财政改革的全过程,从清查仓谷亏空,到耗羡归公和养廉银制度化的最终完成。透过考察周钟蠧案,闽台地区财政改革的过程得以完整呈现。在皇权的强势施压下,闽省官员提出的耗羡归公方案显得仓促而草率。     

汉代木胎鎏金银青铜瓶制作工艺探讨

年在山西打击文物犯罪专项行动中,追缴回一件汉代鎏金银青铜瓶,瓶内为一层木质内壁,是一件结合了木胎掏刻、分体铸造及鎏金银工艺的珍贵文物。 利用超景深视频显微镜对铜瓶表面及内层木胎进行表面形貌的显微观察,以获得制作过程遗留的微观痕迹;X射线探伤对铜瓶整体进行透视拍照,更准确地观察其内部构造;X射线荧光光谱分析技术对铜瓶外表面足部、腹部及颈部等关键部位进行合金成分分析,以确定其外表面装饰工艺,并以此还原其完整制作过程。结果表明,铜瓶为分体铸造工艺,流程为制模、制芯、制泥质外范、铸造、掏刻木胎、套装和鎏金银。铜瓶为上下两部分,中间以铜箍上子母扣的方式结合在一起;铜瓶本体材质为锡青铜,外表面金色部位为鎏金工艺,银白色部位为基于金层的鎏银工艺;瓶内的木胎为整块木材掏刻制成,而非拼接。 本工作选取了形制与工艺均较罕见的木胎鎏金银铜瓶,完整解释其工艺流程,结合青铜工艺发展史对研究结果进行印证,为此类工艺复杂且形制罕见的青铜酒器的保护修复提供了科学依据。     

法门寺地宫出土唐髹漆平脱秘色瓷碗髹漆工艺初探

在1987年的法门寺地宫考古发掘中,出土一对髹漆平脱秘色瓷碗,是秘色瓷与金银工艺、髹漆工艺完美结合的珍贵文物。为了对其髹漆工艺进行了探讨,本研究利用显微观察、扫描电镜能谱分析和红外光谱分析等方法,对髹漆残块、银扣残块样品进行检测分析。在此基础上,提出了其髹漆工艺的流程。研究结果可为文物保护修复、科学技术史和艺术史研究提供可靠参考。     

Studies On Lacquerwares from Between the Mid‐Warring States Period and the Mid‐Western Han Dynasty Excavated in the Changsha Region

The development of lacquerwares reached its peak between the Warring States Period and the Han Dynasty (390–87 bc ) in the Changsha region of China. By studying excavated fragments of lacquers from this period, this paper examines the constitution of various pigmented layers, such as red, black and white layers, coloured lacquer layers, namely reddish brown or reddish orange, dark‐coloured or black, and silver lacquer layers, using non‐destructive methods. In addition, the characteristics of lacquer production techniques in Changsha are also discussed in comparison with those of other regions in China during the same period of time.     

王士琦墓出土金银器的样式与工艺

明代王士琦墓出土金银器百余件,为人熟知的金带銙一副二十枚、金镶玉带具一件是王士琦物,其余则以女子首饰为多。本文对王士琦墓出土的金银器,尤其是其中的女子首饰,作了大致的梳理,包括对这些器物予以重新命名,兼及对式样和工艺的讨论。     

林则徐关于"银贵钱贱"的认识与困惑

林则徐最初认为“银贵钱贱”是鸦片透漏白银出境造成的,但是到了1846年,当他看到西安市场上银价“忽低忽昂”,在不了解“杰科布定律”的情况下,最后他还是陷入一片迷茫之中,留下了“其理亦不可解”的感叹。     

中国国家博物馆环境空气质量监测报告

为加强博物馆藏品的预防性保护,需全面掌握博物馆馆舍内外空气质量的现状,对其进行评估,进而采取有效措施治理改善,妥善保护人类文化遗产。本馆采用美国普滤(Purafil)公司研发并提供的检测技术,在馆舍内外选定八个测试点进行了腐蚀试片测试。根据监测数据得知,本馆处于高浓度极具腐蚀性的二氧化硫气态物质的包围中,已造成对金属、纸张等文物的危害,治理改善收藏环境迫在眉睫。创造保存各类藏品的微环境空间,是治理改善博物馆收藏环境的有效手段。     

1934—1936年间中美关系中的白银外交

美国政府 193 4年通过的《购银法》造成世界银价飞涨。作为银本位大国的中国深受其害 ,白银大量外流 ,金融出现严重危机。中国政府与美国政府进行了长达两年的艰苦交涉 ,最后与美国达成了白银交易 ,先后三次向美国售银总计 1 44亿盎司 ,并利用售银所得的外汇改革和稳定了中国的币制 ,实现了中国多年来一直追求的货币现代化。     

东阳金交椅山宋墓出土文物

2009年,在东阳市白云街道杨大坞村的金交椅山发现了一座宋代墓葬。墓中文物保存完整,共出土30余件珍贵文物,有金器、银器、玉器、青铜器等,尤以金银器式样为多。根据墓葬形制及出土文物特征,推测此墓年代为南宋时期。