Plant microfossil analysis reveals disturbed forest and a mixed-crop,dryland production system at Te Niu,Easter Island

Plant microfossil analysis was carried out on 12 soil samples from a variety of landscape features at three locations (100–250 m a.s.l.) along a 950 m transect at Te Niu, Easter Island. Pollen and phytolith assemblages were dominated by palms and ground ferns, and suggested disturbed forest. We identified pollen of bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) and starch grains of the common yam (Dioscorea alata), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and taro (Colocasia esculenta). The data suggest a mixed-crop, dryland production system at Te Niu dominated by yam and sweet potato, and supplemented by taro and bottle gourd. The data provide direct evidence of crop type and range, supporting the indirect evidence (topographic and landscape features, field and historical research, comparisons with elsewhere in the Pacific) that much of the rock covered landscape of Easter Island was used for intensive horticulture.     

Early and mid Holocene tool-use and processing of taro (Colocasia esculenta), yam (Dioscorea sp.) and other plants at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of Papua New Guinea

Recent multidisciplinary investigations document an independent emergence of agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. In this paper we report preliminary usewear analysis and details of prehistoric use of stone tools for processing starchy food and other plants at Kuk Swamp. Morphological diagnostics for starch granules are reported for two potentially significant economic species, taro (Colocasia esculenta) and yam (Dioscorea sp.), following comparisons between prehistoric and botanical reference specimens. Usewear and residue analyses of starch granules indicate that both these species were processed on the wetland margin during the early and mid Holocene. We argue that processing of taro and yam commences by at least 10,200 calibrated years before present (cal BP), although the taro and yam starch granules do not permit us to distinguish between wild or cultivated forms. From at least 6950 to 6440 cal BP the processing of taro, yam and other plants indicates that they are likely to have been integrated into cultivation practices on the wetland edge.     

Landesque capital as an alternative to food storage in Melanesia: Irrigated taro terraces in New Georgia,Solomon Islands

Abstract

In the Pacific islands, subsistence diversity made possible continuous production of food while well-developed exchange networks redistributed these foodstuffs as well as items within the prestige economy. All these were aspects of the ‘storage structures’ that enabled social and nutritional value to be saved, accumulated and later mobilised. In addition, there were investments in the land, landesque capital, which secured future food surpluses and so provided an alternative to food storage, in a region where the staple foods were mostly perishable, yams excepted, and food preservation was difficult. Landesque capital included such long-term improvements to productivity as terraces, mounds, irrigation channels, drainage ditches, soil structural changes and tree planting. These investments provided an effective alternative to food storage and made possible surplus production for exchange purposes. As an example, in the New Georgia group of the western Solomon Islands irrigated terraces, termed ruta, were constructed for growing the root crop taro (Colocasia esculenta). Surplus taro from ruta enabled inland groups to participate in regional exchange networks and so obtain the shell valuables that were produced by coastal groups. In this paper, we reconstruct how this exchange system worked in New Georgia using ethno-archaeological evidence, we chart its prehistoric rise and post-colonial fall, and we outline the factors that constrained its long-term expansion.     

Oxygen isotope seasonality in a temperate estuarine shell midden: a case study from CA-ALA-17 on the San Francisco Bay,California

Seasonality determination using stable oxygen isotope (δ¹⁸O) analyses in archaeological mollusk shell has been largely limited to aquatic settings where one of the two factors that control shell δ¹⁸O – water δ¹⁸O (or salinity) and temperature – is assumed to be constant. Open coastal marine environments reflect the former situation, and tropical estuaries constitute the latter. In an effort to expand stable isotope seasonality to an ecological setting where neither variable remains constant, we present a model of annual shell δ¹⁸O cycle of aragonite deposition derived from instrumental data on salinity and temperature from San Francisco Bay, California. The predicted range of modeled shell δ¹⁸O is consistent with observed δ¹⁸O values in prehistoric and modern shells when local conditions are considered. Measurements of δ¹⁸O taken at 0 mm and 2 mm from the terminal growth margin were made on 36 archaeological specimens of Macoma nasuta from a late Holocene hunter-gatherer site CA-ALA-17, and season of collection was inferred using the shell δ¹⁸O model. We conclude that shellfish exploitation occurred through the year with the exception of fall, which may indicate scheduling conflicts with acorn harvesting or other seasonally abundant resources elsewhere. The model supports the feasibility of stable isotope seasonality studies in temperate estuaries, provided that instrumental records are available to quantify the relevant water conditions at appropriate spatial and temporal scales.     

Bio-archaeological evidence of olive tree (Olea europaea L.) irrigation during the Middle Ages in Southern France and North Eastern Spain

Quantitative eco-anatomical analyses were carried out on charred wood from modern olive trees (Olea europaea L.) in order to quantify influence of irrigation on wood characters and to detect irrigated olive specimens among charcoal assemblages dating back to the Middle Ages.     

Intensive Agricultural Landscapes of Oceania

Pacific Islanders have adapted over time to a wide range of social and environmental conditions. Subsistence regimes include broad-based fishing and gathering along with horticulture, particularly the cultivation of staple tubers. Agricultural ecosystems on many islands manifest elaborate expressions of greater inputs of labor or the necessity to overcome agronomic constraints to production. Landscapes of intensive agriculture once found throughout Oceania include yam mounds, raised fields, and irrigated terracing. Most of these systems are either abandoned or greatly diminished in scale. Findings from research in the Fiji Islands exemplify some of the forms and functions of these landscapes. Field study at an active system of irrigated terraces for growing taro (Colocasia esculenta) on the remote southern island of Kadavu elucidates the dynamic operations of a gardening strategy that was once much more prevalent throughout the archipelago. Changing political economies across the region may have radically altered humanenvironment relations, but intensive agricultural landscapes endure, providing visible evidence and imparting valuable lessons for traditional cultural ecology in Oceania.     

The impact of manuring on nitrogen isotope ratios in cereals: archaeological implications for reconstruction of diet and crop management practices

Recent archaeological studies of human diet have used stable nitrogen isotope ratios (δ¹⁵N) from human bone collagen to infer the relative importance of terrestrial plant and animal foods. This approach is based on widely observed enrichment of δ¹⁵N up the food chain, plants having distinctly lower values than the herbivores that consume them. Studies of early farming diets in Britain, Denmark and Germany have tended to detect relatively high δ¹⁵N values (e.g. c. +9‰), interpreted as evidence of a diet largely based on animal products, though archaeobotanical evidence for crop cultivation (e.g. carbonised cereal grain and chaff) is widespread. This paper investigates the impact of manuring on δ¹⁵N values in modern cereals, and of charring on these cereal values. The results from two long-term experiments demonstrate that manuring significantly raises δ¹⁵N in cereal grain and chaff. Depending on manuring levels and frequency, it appears that human diets with a major component of such grain would conventionally be interpreted as indicating a largely animal-based diet or a mixed plant/animal diet. Moreover, preliminary analyses of experimentally charred grain and chaff from manured and unmanured conditions are promising for the extraction of reliable ancient δ¹⁵N values from archaeobotanical cereal remains. The wider implications of these results, and the need for further work, are discussed.     

Paleoenvironment and plant cultivation on terraces at La Quemada,Zacatecas, Mexico: the pollen,phytolith and diatom evidence

This paper reports the results of pollen, phytolith and diatom analyses conducted on a series of soil samples collected from a large, possibly communal, system of terraces associated with La Quemada in the Malpaso Valley, Zacatecas, Mexico. These analyses rendered data related to both paleoenvironmental and plant cultivation in the area. Preliminary pollen analyses of soil sediments suggest Agave sp. and Opuntia spp. cultivation played an important role on the terraces. The phytolith analyses recovered abundant, well preserved grass phytoliths, including Zea mays. The composition of the grass community suggests that paleoenvironmental conditions in this area were warm and dry, similar to those of today. The presence of three fresh water diatom taxa and sponge spicules in several archaeological soil samples suggests the possibility that water was carried to the terraces for irrigation from the nearby Rio Malpaso on a regular basis.     

Faeces deposition on Amazonian Anthrosols as assessed from 5β-stanols

In the Amazon Basin, within a landscape of infertile soils, fertile Anthrosols of pre-Columbian origin occur (Amazonian Dark Earths or terra preta de Índio). These soils are characterized by high amounts of charred organic matter (black carbon, biochar) and high nutrient stocks. Frequently, they were considered as sign for intensive landscape domestication by way of sedentary agriculture and as sign for large settlements in pre-Columbian Amazonia. Beyond the archaeological interest in Amazonian Dark Earths, they increasingly receive attention because it is assumed that they could serve as a model for sustainable agriculture in the humid tropics (terra preta nova). Both questions lack information about the pre-Columbian practices which were responsible for the genesis of Amazonian Dark Earths. It has often been hypothesized that deposition of faeces could have contributed to the high nutrient stocks in these soils, but no study has focussed on this question yet. We analyzed the biomarkers for faeces 5β-stanols as well as their precursors and their 5α-isomers in Amazonian Dark Earths and reference soils to investigate the input of faeces into Amazonian Dark Earths. Using Amazonian Dark Earths as example, we discuss the application of threshold values for specific stanols to evaluate faeces deposition in archaeological soils and demonstrate an alternative approach which is based on a comparison of the concentration patterns of 5β-stanols with the concentration patterns of their precursors and their 5α-isomers as well as with local backgrounds. The concentration patterns of sterols show that faeces were deposited on Amazonian Dark Earths.     

A short note on starch and xylem of Colocasia esculenta (taro) in archaeological deposits from Pitcairn Island,southeast Polynesia

We present results of starch analysis of archaeological deposits from Pitcairn Island. High concentrations of starch grains preserved in cell membranes, and xylem tracheary elements, consistent with introduced Colocasia esculenta (taro) were found. Because of limited age control, we are uncertain if the microfossils are prehistoric. Problems associated with identifying taxa with small starch grains in extractions from weathered deposits are highlighted.     

Archaeobotany,vine growing and wine producing in Roman Southern France: the site of Gasquinoy (Béziers,Hérault)

Unequivocal evidence of Roman vine cultivation and wine making is provided from studies of combined archaeological remains from the site of Gasquinoy (Southern France). Waterlogged and charred plant material (fruits/seeds/wood) collected from wells located in the close vicinity of cultivated fields and wine making establishments confirms the local significance of this activity. The results offer insights on particular aspects of wine production (‘traumatic’ treading of grapes and straining) and provide evidence of secondary agricultural activities such as cereal production and fruit tree cultivation. The potential use of monocotyledonous stems such as Arundo/Phragmites in the farming system is discussed.     

Mesolithic shellfish exploitation in SW Italy: seasonal evidence from the oxygen isotopic composition of Osilinus turbinatus shells

Oxygen isotope analyses were carried out on the topshell Osilinus turbinatus from archaeological sites with the aim to investigate the temporal exploitation patterns by Mesolithic groups inhabiting coastal caves in SW Italy. In order to assess the present day O. turbinatus intra-annual δ¹⁸O variability, living specimens were collected monthly at Marina di Camerota (SW Italian peninsula). Their shell-edges were analysed and the seasonal results were compared with archaeozoological material. Our findings show that Mesolithic O. turbinatus exploitation was carried out almost exclusively during the colder and intermediary seasons (e.g. autumn, winter, spring), with very sporadic harvesting during the warmer seasons. Results suggest a possible regional exploitation pattern of O. turbinatus by Mesolithic groups inhabiting this region.     

Chemical Weathering of Detrital Sediments in the Taklamakan Desert,Northwestern China

Based on the analysis of major‐element compositions of detrital sediments from the Taklamakan Desert of northwestern China, this paper aims to study chemical weathering in a hyper‐arid desert environment. The major‐element compositions are basically similar to the Upper Continental Crust but show a clear enrichment of CaO and depletion of Na₂O and K₂O, indicating the enrichment of carbonates and the decomposition of sodium and potassium silicates. The indexes of chemical alteration are relatively low and correlate negatively with the content of Na₂O, implying that the degree of chemical weathering is weak and mainly controlled by the weathering of sodium feldspars. An A‐CN‐K model demonstrates that the detrital sediments from the Taklamakan Desert have a high homogeneity in the trend of chemical weathering. They are weathered less than sands and soil in many other Chinese deserts, and also less than similar detrital sediments in many other countries. This evidence suggests a low degree of mineralogical maturity in the Taklamakan Desert. The aeolian sediments of different ages have similar indexes of chemical weathering, suggesting that the degree of chemical weathering was consistent in the Taklamakan Desert throughout the period of aeolian deposition. The low degree of chemical weathering is caused principally by extreme aridity, rapid rejuvenation of detrital sediments associated with strong aeolian processes, and an intensive input of fluvial deposits, as well as a lack of vegetation. Due to the high concentration of erodible minerals, the desert is quite vulnerable to soil erosion and land degradation.     

Archaeological geophysics of a Bronze Age agricultural landscape: the AROURA Project,central mainland Greece

Between 2010 and 2012, the AROURA project conducted magnetometric prospection in the ancient polder around the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1300–1190 b.c.) fortress of Glas, mainland Greece. As had been hypothesized, the anomalies detected were consistent with a system of agricultural fields. This system appears to have been irrigated and drained through previously identified hydraulic mechanisms in and around the polder. Comparison of soil profiles of anomalies with those of background areas, including their magnetic susceptibilities, corroborated magnetometric data. Anomalies were traced from sampled to unsampled areas through corresponding reclassified satellite bandwidths. Constituent sediments of features discovered were dated to the Late Bronze Age through AMS radiocarbon and OSL analyses. The results validated the use of extensive geophysics to detect and investigate ancient agricultural landscapes.     

Land Use and Soil Erosion in Prehistoric and Historical Greece

Abstract

Soil erosion resulting from human exploitation of the land has attracted much public and scientific interest. Being regarded mainly as a modern phenomenon, however, its prehistoric and historical extent remain largely unexplored. Here we summarize three regional studies of Holocene erosion and alluviation in Greece, together with information derived from the literature, and conclude that most recorded Holocene soil erosion events are spatially and temporally related to human interference in the landscape. Wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of soil erosion appears to follow by 500–1000 years the introduction of farming in Greece, its age depending on when agriculture was introduced and ranging from the later Neolithic to the late Early Bronze Age. Later Bronze Age and historical soil erosion events are more scattered in time and space, but especially the thousand years after the middle of the 1st millennium B.C. saw serious, intermittent soil erosion in many places. With the exception of the earliest Holocene erosion phase, the evidence is compatible with a model of control of the timing and intensity of landscape destabilization by local economic and political conditions. On the whole, however, periods of landscape stability have lasted much longer than the mostly brief episodes of soil erosion and stream aggradation.     

Fishing ancient Lake Baikal,Siberia: inferences from the reconstruction of harvested perch (Perca fluviatilis) size

Fishing was the foundation for many of the world's foraging peoples and was undertaken using a variety of technologies. Reconstructing fishing technologies can be difficult because these tools were often made of perishable materials. Here we explore fishing technologies employed at the Ityrkhei site on Lake Baikal, Siberia. Specifically, we employ regression analyses to reconstruct the sizes of perch (Perca fluviatilis) captured through time at the site. Our analyses demonstrate that almost no juvenile perch were taken, suggesting some selectivity in harvest. We suggest this selectivity is most consistent with the use of relatively large gauge nets or traps. Such mass harvesting technologies may have been important elements of the subsistence economies of Lake Baikal's foraging peoples throughout much of the Holocene.     

The cultural landscape near the ancient city of Tharros (central West Sardinia): vegetation changes and human impact

The evolution of the cultural landscape in coastal western Sardinia is investigated by means of pollen analysis in the Mistras Lagoon sediments, near the ancient city of Tharros, with particular attention to changes in evergreen vegetation and the impact of human activity. The pollen diagram, spanning the time interval from 5300 to 1600 cal BP, documents the influence of man, climate, and geomorphic dynamics on the evolution of a semi-open evergreen vegetation landscape and variations in extent of a salt-marsh environment. Anthropogenic indicators and microcharcoals concur in depicting increased land use coinciding with the Nuragic, Phoenician, Punic and Roman dominations. Pollen data, along with archaeobotanical evidence, suggest a prevailing arable farming economy, vocated to Vitis and cereals exploitation, during the Nuragic phase until 2400 cal BP, replaced since then by a prevailing stock rearing economy. Between 2050 and 1600 cal BP, a less intensive human impact on the landscape is profiled, consistently with the archaeologically documented abandonment of the rural villages in favour of a slow urbanization, experienced by the Sinis territory in Imperial times. The pollen record provides new insights into the history of important economic plants in the Mediterranean, such as Vitis, Olea and Quercus suber. The results of the pollen analysis reveal how the records of these taxa are primarily influenced by the cultural development of the Sinis region and secondarily by dynamics involving the natural companion vegetation.     

Micromorphology of Pech-de-l'Azé II sediments

A micromorphological study of the sediments from the cave of Pech-de-l'Azé II using the terminology of Brewer (1964) was undertaken in order to describe them, to compare the results and their palaeoclimatic interpretations (e.g., Laville, 1973) with those of classical sedimentological analyses and to evaluate the role of micromorphology in the analysis of cave and rock-shelter deposits.The soil skeleton is composed of quartz sand and silt resulting principally from the decay of bedrock with local reworking by solifluction and ruissellement. Lithorelicts consist of bedrock fragments of cryoclastic origin and detrital phosphate grains which can be identified as being large carnivore (bear or hyaena?) coprolites. The plasma is composed of mostly iron rich clay and although it was most abundant in reddish layers of previously recognized soils, no micromorphological evidence for clay illuvation was found. The latter might have been caused by post-depositional destruction by freeze and thaw which produced the generally well developed banded fabrics in many of the beds. Free grain argillans occur sporadically but are particularly well developed on phosphate grains. Secondary calcite, occurring either in dispersed zones or as void calcitans and neocalcitans occurs throughout but is more marked in the upper layers and bed 6.Micromorphologically based palaeoclimatic interpretations agreed on the whole with those obtained by classical sedimentology although several questions were raised which should make us more cautious in interpreting “classical” data: such as the origin of the clay, especially in “soil” horizons. The advantages of micromorphology in delineating sequence of events were indicated.     

Experimental harvesting of wild peas in Israel: implications for the origins of Near East farming

Previous evaluations of the potential advantage of farming over foraging have been based on experimental harvesting of wild cereals in Near Eastern ecosystems. The highly successful combination of cereals and legumes, “the Near Eastern crops assemblage”, is considered a natural choice due to the complementary nutritional value of the two crop types. Yet, legumes were rarely referred to in models describing early farming and the transition from foraging to farming. Wild legumes differ from wild cereals in several attributes pertaining to domestication, including population density (patchy vs. dense), growth habit (indeterminate vs. determinate), dispersal units (camouflaged seeds vs. awned spikelets), seed dormancy (90–80% vs. 50%), and year to year establishment (erratic vs. regular). We have analyzed the yield potential of three wild pea species (Pisum elatius, P. humile, and P. fulvum) in several ecosystems in Israel. All three pea species have patchy distribution patterns and the yield potential of the wild populations is highly variable. A harvest rate of 0.6–610 grams (calculated per collector) of clean dry grain per hour of harvest time was estimated. Among the three species studied the one adopted for domestication appears to be the least productive. This suggests that the potential productivity of wild peas was not the only or even the major consideration for domestication.