Probable evidences of bone accumulation by Pleistocene bearded vulture at the archaeological site of El Mirón Cave (Spain)

The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), a bird or prey that mainly feeds on bones of large mammal carcasses, has been recently evidenced as an accumulating agent with significant contributions to palaeontological assemblages in caves and shelters, but extremely rare at archaeological sites. The results of the taphonomic analyses carried out in the Upper Palaeolithic layers of El Mirón Cave (Cantabrian Spain), which are presented here, evidence the existence of special digestive marks and a typical skeletal pattern in a noticeable amount of small and medium-sized ungulates bones. This fact suggest that a representative part of the bone assemblage has been caused by bearded vultures, and strengthens the idea that this bird has to be definitely included among other potential non-human accumulators in archaeological sites.     

Possible evidence of mammoth hunting during the Epigravettian at Yudinovo, Russian Plain

Whether or not mammoth hunting was practised during the Late Palaeolithic has been a controversial issue ever since large accumulations of woolly mammoth bones associated with prehistoric artefacts were discovered more than 100 years ago. Detailed taphonomic and palaeobiological analyses of the mammoth bone complexes from the Epigravettian Yudinovo site in the Russian Plain were carried out. The combination of the homogeneous weathering rate of the mammoth bones, the isolated state of most of the skeletal elements, the restricted spatial range of the carnivore gnawing traces, the breakage pattern of the skulls and long bones, the sex ratio, the small body size of the adult mammoths, the age profile (with an important frequency of prime-aged cows), and the large number of individuals, suggest that the bone complexes at Yudinovo were constructed from body parts and bones that were extracted from freshly killed mammoths and that mammoth hunting was practised at this site during the Epigravettian.     

Stone Age exploitation of birds on the island of Gotland,Baltic Sea: a taphonomic study of the avifauna on the Neolithic site of Ajvide

We have conducted a detailed taphonomic study of the avifauna of the Pitted Ware culture site of Ajvide on the Island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea, in order to investigate the fowling patterns and the taphonomic history of the bird remains. We have investigated cultural as well as natural modifications on the bird bones, fragmentation and fracture patterns, and performed a systematic surface modification study. No specific area for the deposition of bird remains or specific bird species was identified. All major anatomical parts of birds are present in the assemblage, but there is a dominance of specimens from the wing elements. Traces of cultural modification were observed on the bones, including cut marks, burning, modification (implements, beads, raw material), and gnawing marks. The bone surface modifications and fracture analysis indicate that the majority of the bird bones at Ajvide did not lie on the soil surface for an extended period of time before being deposited in the soil. Dry fractures increase while fresh fractures decrease towards the upper levels of the stratigraphy, indicating more extensive post‐depositional destruction. This may partly be connected to modern agriculture, but also to later use of the settlement area as a burial ground. The Ajvide assemblage contains a variety of birds living in different biotopes. However, bird hunting was mainly focused on sea birds. Auks and ducks are the most common families in the assemblage. We find it likely that the Ajvide hunters conducted organised hunting expeditions to two nearby islands for the hunting of auks, while it was possible to hunt other birds such as ducks closer to the site. The presence of medullary bone and bones from subadult birds indicates a main hunting season in late spring and early summer. However, comparisons with modern migration patterns indicate that hunting may have occurred throughout the year. Of special palaeozoological interest is the find of gannet (Morus bassanus), which apparently in Neolithic times visited the Baltic area more regularly than today. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Actualistic research into dynamic impact and its implications for understanding differential bone fragmentation and survivorship

The relationship between bone mineral density and archaeological bone survivorship has played a critical role in zooarchaeological and taphonomic studies in recent decades. Numerous studies have suggested that higher-density skeletal element portions survive more frequently than lower-density element portions when archaeological assemblages are affected by some taphonomic processes. Interpretations of density mediated destruction have become commonplace in the archaeological literature, and are often used to explain the absence of certain bone elements and element parts in zooarchaeological assemblages. This study explores the effects of rockfall on bovid elements in varied environmental conditions and the differential survivorship of their element parts, and has implications for understanding the taphonomic processes through which bones are subjected to dynamic loading. Actualistic rockfall experiments conducted on twelve samples of frozen, fresh, and semi-dried bovid bones reveal that the generally low-density epiphyseal ends of bone elements resist fracture and analytical deletion with more frequency than the higher-density diaphyses. This evidence suggests that bone density does not correlate with likelihood of breakage or effective archaeological “destruction” when rockfall and other processes that result in dynamic impact are in action. While this research does not question the relationship between bone mineral density and the likelihood for archaeological survivorship as the result of some taphonomic processes, it presents one specific set of taphonomic processes that result in the differential survivorship of low density bone elements parts and the fragmentation and destruction of higher density element parts. This research presents evidence that shows that dynamic impact is a process capable of fragmenting and sometimes destroying high-density elements while low-density elements survive.     

An experimental study of large mammal bone modification by crocodiles and its bearing on the interpretation of crocodile predation at FLK Zinj and FLK NN3

The taphonomic signature of crocodiles as agents of bone modification has been previously identified by specific tooth mark types (e.g., bisected pits) and by a conspicuous presence of these marks: more than 75% of bones modified by crocodiles bear at least one of these distinctive marks. Therefore, crocodile tooth-marking would be notably prevalent in bone assemblages resulting from crocodile predation and active scavenging. The present study contributes to refine this diagnosis by showing greater variability of these types of marks, a different degree of tooth-marking intensity, and a somewhat different distribution of tooth-marked elements according to skeletal parts from previous experiments with crocodiles. Some of these differences are due to different experimental variables and conditions and this highlights the need to understand behavioral variability in crocodile ecological settings. This variability in crocodile tooth-marking probably results from several as-yet-inadequately measured behavioral and ecological factors, such as intensity of feeding competition and differences between male and female crocodile feeding behaviors, among others. Furthermore, this study also contributes to a better definition of the microscopic criteria that can be used to distinguish crocodile-inflicted marks from other types of bone surface modifications. In light of these and previous experimental frameworks, we reevaluate the application of these analogs to modifications documented in hominin fossils from Olduvai Gorge (OH8 and OH35) and the resulting inferences about the hazard posed by crocodiles on the paleolandscape where FLK North North and FLK Zinj (Bed I) were formed. The taphonomic analysis also shows that Olduvai OH8 and OH35 were probably not preyed upon by crocodiles. It is concluded that no tangible evidence can be used to support the interpretation that OH35 was modified by crocodiles and that the overall presence of crocodiles in FLK North North and FLK Zinj was rather marginal, based on the virtual absence of crocodile-modified bones in both archaeofaunal assemblages.     

Micromammal taphonomy of el-Wad Terrace,Mount Carmel,Israel: distinguishing cultural from natural depositional agents in the Late Natufian

A taphonomic analysis of micromammal remains from the Late Natufian deposits of el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel, was conducted in order to test the long-standing premise of owl deposition as the primary accumulating agent. The inferred taphonomic sequence was modeled within an actualistic (recent) comparative framework incorporating a locally derived barn owl pellet collection and an off-site control assemblage of micromammal remains from the cliff overhanging the terrace. The sequence was reconstructed based on multiple types of recorded taphonomic data, comprising skeletal modifications (breakage, digestion, weathering, gnawing, and charring) and age structure. Evidence for post-depositional processes including fluvial transport, trampling, and weathering was isolated and consequently the typical owl imprints were traced through the two actualistic and the archaeological assemblages. Based on the extent of breakage and patterning in skeletal element frequencies it was also possible to scale the preservation potential of primary data in el-Wad Terrace as a discrete site type, intermediate between true cave and open-air depositional environments. Verifying the role of owls as principal agents of accumulation of the el-Wad Terrace micromammal remains enabled the detection of two minor superimposed cultural patterns: consumption of mole rats (Spalax sp.) by the Natufians and commensalism of mice (Mus spp.).     

“After 20 Years”: A Taphonomic Re-evaluation of Nahal Hadera V,an Epipalaeolithic Site on the Israeli Coastal Plain

We carried out a detailed taphonomic study of the faunal remains from Nahal Hadera V (NHV), a large Kebaran open-air site on the northern coastal plain, Israel. Faunal remains were previously identified to bone element and species (Saxon, Martin & Bar-Yosef, 1978). However, NISP and MNI values were calculated based on teeth and epiphyses only. In this study we identified the maximum number of skeletal elements, including head fragments, vertebrae, ribs, carpals/tarsals, and shaft fragments. Further analyses included search for various bone surface modifications and the study of mode of bone fragmentation. We found minor loss of bones caused by various diagenetic processes, and no signs of carnivore activity. These results suggest that most of the bone destruction was caused during time of occupation, probably for marrow consumption, as indicated by mode of bone fragmentation. Absence of selective transport for gazelle (Gazella gazella) and fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica), the major prey species (with 70% and 20%, respectively), is supported by homogeneous representation of head-limb-toe elements. However, the carcasses may have been processed before transport to the site. Thus, a taphonomic analysis from NHV helps to illuminate the economy of NHV inhabitants and fine-tunes our understanding of the depositional history of the site. However, it does not overthrow results of earlier research using classical methods.     

A taphonomic study of a carcass consumed by griffon vultures (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gyps fulvus</Emphasis>) and its relevance for the interpretation of bone surface modifications

Vultures are ubiquitous taphonomic agents in most biomes. However, taphonomic studies of vultures are scarce and very little is known of the damage they cause to bone surfaces when consuming carcasses. This study presents the results of a taphonomic analysis of bones modified by griffon vultures. Although some marks created by these agents are diagnostically unique, others are extremely similar to modifications caused by other biostratinomic processes. This renders interpretations of marks on bones very problematic when these modifications are considered in isolation rather than at the assemblage and contextual levels.     

Reconsideration of criteria for differentiating faunal assemblages accumulated by hyenas and hominids

Zooarchaeologists have established several criteria for differentiating hominid‐ and hyena‐derived faunal assemblages. In some cases, however, the patterns of skeletal part representation and bone surface modification on which these criteria are ultimately based have been observed in fossil bone assemblages of unknown origin, rather than in modern assemblages of known origin. When the proposed criteria are evaluated within an actualistic framework, only three are able to differentiate between hominid‐ and hyena‐created faunal assemblages. I suggest that only these three criteria—proportions of carnivores to ungulates in the assemblage, the preserved condition of long bone specimens (either as whole cylinders or as splintered shaft fragments), and the types of bone surface modifications—should be retained as important factors in a diagnosis of the ancient bone‐collector. The remaining four criteria—the relative proportion of horn pieces in the assemblage, the relative representation of podial bones, the relative representation of small and large bovid skeletal parts, and bovid mortality profiles—are not relevant or applicable to the problem of differentiating hominid‐ from hyena‐derived faunal assemblages. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Use of Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) in Taphonomy: The Case of Middle Helladic Asine,Greece

The goal of this paper is to investigate whether multiple correspondence analysis (MCA), a multivariate statistical technique, is a useful dimensionality‐reduction tool in zooarchaeological and taphonomic studies. For this purpose, the focus is to detect and discuss traces of waste management. Animal bones from waste‐related contexts at the Bronze Age site Asine, Greece, are investigated. The data consist of bone fragments dating to the Middle Helladic from this site. Unidentified fragments were categorised in size classes, where possible. Information on taxa, skeletal parts and the presence or absence of several taphonomic markers is included in the data set. The MCA reveals several correlations of zooarchaeological interest. For example, the association between indeterminate fragments and calcined bone points to issues concerning identification and preservation. Floors are characterised by weathered long‐bone fragments from medium‐sized mammals. Additionally, the results of MCA indicate that the material might have suffered from density‐mediated attrition, based on the abundance of axial fragments, which did not differ between different contexts and taxa. The results show that MCA can be used to detect zooarchaeological and taphonomic patterns. This multivariate technique is useful when investigating large data sets, as is often the case with large zooarchaeological assemblages. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hunted or Scavenged Neanderthals? Taphonomic Approach to Hominin Fossils with Carnivore Damage

Carnivore damage on Neanderthal fossils is a much more common taphonomic modification than previously thought. Its presence could have different explanations, including predatory attacks or scavenging scenarios, which are both situations with important implications concerning Neanderthal behaviour. In the present paper, we analyse several Neanderthal hominin fossils from a taphonomic and forensic perspective in order to infer the nature of the modifications observed on the bone surfaces. Fossils displaying carnivore modifications from Spain, Germany, Belgium and Greece are evaluated from a taphonomic perspective for the first time in a significant sample of hominin specimens. Our results show that the materials analysed have been modified by small to large carnivores and that both attacks and strictly carnivore scavenging events can be inferred. This study also points out the importance of developing taphonomic approaches to the analysis of hominin bone surfaces, which can contribute significantly to knowledge of several aspects of Neanderthal behaviour. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

‘Rid grasse of bones’: A taphonomic study of the bones from midden deposits at the Neolithic and Bronze age site of Runnymede,Surrey, England

Runnymede has large samples of Neolithic and Late Bronze Age animal bones, with contrasting preservation conditions in both periods. The bone evidence has been used to interpret the formation of the site deposits. There are few articulated bones, and no joins were found in butchered bone, indicating that the area studied did not contain primary refuse. Various aspects of bone alteration have been analysed: (i) the proportion of bones with very good surface preservation was high in the in situ Neolithic excavation units and the basal Bronze Age midden, but bones in the upper units were mostly eroded. These units are reworked flood deposits. The greater degree of fragmentation of the bone in the reworked units has been quantified, using a system of recording the ‘zones’ present on each bone, which allows calculation of the fraction present. It is also demonstrated that the reworked units contain a lower proportion of identified bones and a higher proportion of teeth and iaws than the units with well-preserved bone, (ii) Quantification of canid gnawing shows, unexpectedly, that more was recorded on well-preserved bone. Thus recognition of gnawing depends on bone condition. This also confirms that most of the erosion of the bone surface is a post-depositional phenomenon. The sequence of activities is therefore interpreted as follows: meat was cooked and consumed, and the bones discarded for the dogs. At a later stage, larger bones were picked up and thrown away in the river or midden. Some ethnographic examples of periodic cleaning of farming settlements are cited.     

A rallying point for different predators: the avian record from a Late Pleistocene sequence of Grotte des Barasses II (Balazuc,Ardèche,France)

The presence of processed birds in the archeological faunal record is considered key to assessing human dietary evolution. Taphonomic studies on birds from sites older than Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2 have become relevant in the last few years, leading to the proposal of more complex scenarios of human subsistence. Several works have demonstrated direct evidence of bird consumption by Homo prior to anatomically modern humans in Europe; however, others support the hypothesis of non-anthropogenic bird accumulations. This has led to the necessity of determining what elements or factors cause the human exploitation of birds in some archeological sites before the end of the Pleistocene. The Grotte des Barasses II site is located within this framework. Short-term human occupations have been attested by the presence of lithic tools and processed macrofaunal remains. Additionally, a small assemblage of bird bones has also been recovered. Here, we present a detailed taphonomic study with the aim of exploring possible relationships between these avian taxa and human occupations. Despite the fact that Neanderthals inhabited the cave, avian specimens show damage pointing to different causative agents. Direct evidence (digestion, gnawing) indicates that mammalian carnivores and nocturnal raptors were mainly involved in the accumulation of bird bones. We propose some factors that might determine whether or not small game was exploited in this specific locality and emphasize the importance of such analytical approaches in the general interpretations of the Pleistocene sites.     

Prehistoric Butchery and Consumption of Birds in the Kingdom of Tonga,South Pacific

We evaluate the preservational attributes (element frequency, breakage, burning, cut-marks, rodent gnawing, and age) of ca. 500 bird bones from three prehistoric archaeological sites on the Polynesian islands of Foa and Lifuka in the Ha‘apai Group, Kingdom of Tonga. Two of the sites lie in calcareous beach sands whereas the third is the refuse infilling of a well. Although differing in age, all three sites are unequivocally cultural in origin, as evidenced by rich artifact assemblages and various sedimentological features (pits, hearths, etc.) that reflect human activities. The sites also contain bones from a diverse assemblage of marine fish, marine and terrestrial reptiles (sea turtles, iguanas), and terrestrial mammals (fruit bats, rats, pigs, dogs). We find no evidence for deposition of bones (bird or otherwise) in these Tongan sites by non-human agents. This is expected given that we are unaware of any non-human species or geological process that would concentrate the bones of fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals on a beach ridge or in a well in Tonga. This is especially the case since the species range from very small to very large, and represent marine, fresh water, coastal, and forested habitats. Nevertheless, clear evidence of cultural involvement cannot be discerned on most individual bones, whether bird or non-bird. Furthermore, most taphonomic attributes (element frequency, breakage, burning, and cut-marks) of bones of a domesticated species (the chicken, Gallus gallus) resemble those found on bones of indigenous landbirds. We believe that all bones in any zooarchaeological assemblage should be evaluated carefully to determine who or what was responsible for their deposition. We see no reason, however, why bird bones should be held to some standard higher than those applied to the bones of other taxa, as some have suggested.     

Taphonomy and zooarchaeology of a high-altitude Upper Pleistocene faunal sequence from Hovk-1 Cave,Armenia

The Caucasus is a key region for the study of hominid evolution and Neanderthal ecology. Taphonomic and zooarchaeological studies of sites from this region are few and only focused on sites at low-to-mid altitude zones with evidence of relatively intensive hominid occupation. This study focused on the taphonomic and zooarchaeological characteristics of a high-altitude site from the Upper Pleistocene – Hovk-1 Cave – looking at diachronic change in both natural and cultural processes which shaped the faunal assemblage. Results best fit a model in which the bones of most large mammals, mainly ungulates (wild goat, Capra aegagrus and red deer, Cervus elaphus) and cave bears (Ursus spelaeus) accumulated naturally through pitfalls, with minimal input from human or carnivore activity. This accumulation is characterized by a high frequency of complete ungulate and carnivore bones, a bear assemblage which is dominated by young-adults and a wild goat assemblage that includes juvenile and young-adult individuals. Our taphonomic reconstruction serves as a point of reference for comparative studies of palaeoenvironments and human subsistence patterns of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic sites in the Caucasus and broadens our perspective on hominid occupation and ecological adaptation in other high-altitude world regions.     

New density data for unfused and fused sheep bones,and a preliminary discussion on the modelling of taphonomic bias in archaeofaunal age profiles

The analysis of mortality profiles forms an important part of zooarchaeological analysis. It has long been assumed that the bones of immature animals are more prone to taphonomic destruction than those of mature animals, potentially distorting mortality profiles. This study measures the DPD (a proxy for taphonomic strength) of the postcranial skeletons of 91 modern sheep of known age. The data produced are used to demonstrate that the DPD of unfused bones is indeed generally lower than that of their fused equivalents, although considerable inter-individual variation exists. It is further suggested that bone density increases throughout the life of an animal and occurs independently of the fusion of its bones. Consequently, taphonomic bias is partly dependant on the age structure and not the fusion status of the deposited assemblage. Relative levels of bias can only be assessed if this age structure is constant for all elements being considered (e.g. if the material were deposited as entire carcasses). Finally, because potential age-related bias is not equal for all elements, the degree of bias associated with a particular fusion group may partly depend on the numbers of certain elements within that group.     

Hiding to eat: the role of carnivores in the early Middle Pleistocene from the TD8 level of Gran Dolina (Sierra de Atapuerca,Burgos, Spain)

Damage generated by large and small carnivores is common in many Middle Pleistocene sites. However, identifying the predator that produces the faunal accumulations is often a difficult task. In order to recognize the main type of carnivore that acts on a faunal assemblage, a combination of several characteristics should be taken into account: taxonomic and skeletal element representation, age profiles, carnivore damage (location, frequencies and dimensions of tooth-marks, bone breakage and digested bones), degree of fragmentation and frequencies of coprolites. But, adding environmental characteristics and the ethology of non-human predators/scavengers is also important. All these aspects are applied to the faunal assemblage from the TD8 level of the Gran Dolina site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). Paleomagnetic data combined with ESR and U-series place the TD8 level at the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene, specifically circa 700 kyr ago. The TD8 level contains a large faunal accumulation primarily composed of ungulate skeletal elements, and to a lesser extent carnivore remains. This assemblage is characterized by an overrepresentation of fallow deer (Dama vallonetensis), a skeletal profile biased towards cranial remains and limb bones, diversity of ages at death, a high proportion of carnivore damage and tooth-marks of large size, and an absence of human activity. According to these data, the accumulation seems to have been produced primarily by large carnivores, possibly hyenas. This observation does not rule out the possible occasional activity by other carnivores. Nevertheless, the characteristics of the TD8 assemblage do not correlate entirely with those traditionally used to define carnivore dens. In TD8, there are (1) no immature carnivore remains (remains of just one young Mosbach wolf); (2) scarce traces related to the end stages of consumption and some anatomical connexions; (3) few coprolites; (4) high proportion of adult ungulates and; (5) high quantities of whole bones and epiphyses. From this perspective, the TD8 faunal assemblage seems to correspond to a succession of carnivore occupations that allows the development of a suite of features to identify the activities of several species of predators that may have used the cave in different ways and durations. This study aims to emphasize the importance of these analyzes in order to know the behaviour of different non-human predators/scavengers in the European Middle Pleistocene sites.     

An assessment of the value of bone density measurements to archaeoichthyological studies

This paper reviews the meaning of the term ‘density’ and the problems associated with the methods of density determination for animal bones in archaeology. It has often been assumed that density is the intrinsic property of most influence in controlling the rate of a bone's decay. Values for whole bone density have been published only for large mammal bone, however. Fish bone appears to be particularly vulnerable to decay, and usually a restricted range of skeletal elements are recovered from archaeological sites. The object of this study was to examine the relationship between fish bone density and the ability of the bone to survive on occupation sites and in archaeological deposits. A set of ‘density’ measurements was established for the bones of cod (Gadus morhua). The usefulness of these measurements as a predictive tool in archaeoichthyological studies is assessed. It was found that ‘density’ as measured did not explain adequately the relative survival of skeletal elements after mechanical abrasion and weathering, or within archaeological deposits.     

The Middle Pleistocene argali (Ovis ammon antiqua) assemblages at the Caune de l'Arago (Tautavel,Pyrénées‐Orientales,France): were prehistoric hunters or carnivores responsible for their accumulation?

The argali (Ovis ammon antiqua) assemblages from the Middle Pleistocene site of the Caune de l'Arago (Tautavel, southern France) were studied in terms of zooarchaeology and taphonomy. It is possible to discern palaeobiological information lost during fossilisation, as well as the palaeoethology of the bone collector, by the observation of taphonomic details preserved on the bone assemblages. The observations leave no doubt that both humans and carnivores were involved in the accumulation of argali carcasses in the cave. In some assemblages, the type of bones found in articulation and the gnawing marks observed are characteristic of carnivores. In other levels, the intense fracturing of the major limb bones in relation to their marrow content and mineral density, and butchering marks found on specimens in the earlier levels, are in favour of human accumulation, the modalities of which are discussed. The results suggest that the degree of carnivore activity seems to have been higher in levels M, N and O than in level F. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

NEW EVIDENCE FOR IRON AGE SECONDARY BURIAL PRACTICE AND BONE MODIFICATION FROM GUSSAGE ALL SAINTS AND MAIDEN CASTLE (DORSET, ENGLAND)

Summary.   The Middle and Late Iron Age samples of disarticulated human remains from the settlement site of Gussage All Saints and the hillfort of Maiden Castle (Dorset, England) were investigated for evidence of funerary rites. The samples were examined using osteological, forensic and archaeological methodologies for evidence of excarnation and secondary burial. The study found evidence for dry-fractures, animal gnawing and peri-mortem trauma, indicating that many individuals had received blunt-force cranial fractures and/or weapon injuries at the time of death. The taphonomic indicators showed that bodies were excarnated, received secondary burial treatment and then selected skull and long bones were incorporated into structured deposits. Osteological analysis also showed that the majority of individuals were adult males, which corresponded to patterns of trauma in the inhumated sample from Dorset. Two bones also provided unique evidence within Dorset for the cultural modification of human remains.