Was it the deer or the fox?

Herbivores, as taphonomic agents, can modify and consume bones and antlers for no nutritive purpose. This unusual behavior is due to a nutritional dysfunction (osteophagia) that allows them to supplement a lack of minerals in their diet through ingestion of minerals contained in bones. When chewing, herbivores change skeletal element morphology and produce a characteristic forked shape. At an incipient stage of modification, herbivore chewing may mimic that of carnivores. In this paper, we provide diagnostic criteria to distinguish bone modification made by herbivores from that produced by other taphonomic agents, mainly carnivores.     

Microscopic examination of ground sections – a simple method for distinguishing between bone and antler?

Both bones and antlers have been used throughout history for manufacturing various products. Therefore, archaeologists often have to distinguish between these materials. The more the raw material (bone or antler) has been treated, the more complicated it is to distinguish. For this study, recent macerated and archaeological samples of bone and antler and their products have been compared. Antler is usually very easy to distinguish based on the characteristic surface structure; however, the original surface is not preserved in all artefacts. The inner surface of the diaphysis of long bones is mostly compact with prominent trabeculae and lamellae, whereas, after removal of the spongiosa, the inner surface of antler is characterised by numerous grooves. Sometimes, however, artefacts are found which are composed only of the compact bone substance, without inner and outer surfaces, and it is not possible to distinguish between bones and antlers macroscopically. Haversian systems can be found in histological and ground sections of both bones and antlers. In contrast to bones, antlers have few interstitial lamellae. The osteons of antler seem to be smaller and to consist of fewer layers than those of bone. Inner and outer circumferential lamellae cannot be distinguished in antlers. Although microscopic examination of sectioned samples does not allow distinction between bones and antlers in every case, it represents a valuable additional tool for distinguishing between these two materials in historic artefacts. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evidence of butchery and hominid activities at Torralba and Ambrona; an evaluation using microscopic techniques

Torralba and Ambrona have been interpreted as butchery sites for many years, a contention recently challenged; natural death or carnivore activities are invoked as an alternative explanation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of bone surface replicas distinguishes among hominid-produced cutmarks, carnivore tooth scratches, and other types of bone damage. A sample of 102 replicas, comprising the most likely cutmarks on a combined sample of roughly 3000 fossils from Torralba and Ambrona, were scanned to determine the major agent of damage. Microscopically verified cutmarks are present, but rare, occurring in less than 1% of the bones in the combined sample. Carnivore tooth scratches are comparably rare. In contrast, evidence of sedimentary abrasion, which obliterates the diagnostic features of cutmarks, is present on nearly every bone from Torralba and Ambrona. It remains unresolved whether cutmarks were initially more common on these bones and were subsequently obliterated by abrasion, or whether the incidence of cutmarks was always low. These data demonstrate clearly that hominids and carnivores each damaged some bones at Torralba and Ambrona, but the frequency of each type of mark is too low to confirm strongly the interpretation of these sites as either butchery or carnivore remains.     

Dental evolution in prehistoric Native Americans of the Ohio valley area. I. Wear and pathology

Temporal patterns of tooth wear rates (loss of crown height) and dental pathologies (caries, abscess, and tooth loss) are estimated for 40 Native American populations of the upper Ohio River valley area ranging in time from the Late Archaic (ca. 3500 years BP ) to Protohistoric times (ca. 350 years BP ). Within this time span three ‘dental cultural ecological environments’ are recognized: high rates of wear, low frequencies of pathology (Late Archaic), low rates of wear, low frequencies of pathologies (Woodland, ca. 2500–1000 years BP ), and low rates of wear and high frequencies of pathologies (Late Prehistoric, ca. post-1000 years BP ). Phenotypic selection acting to maintain tooth size is associated with pre-ceramic, hunter–fisher–gatherers in the first dental environment. The introduction and development of ceramics at the end of the Late Archaic is associated with significant reduction in tooth wear rates and reduction in size of maxillary teeth, most likely due to selection. From at least the Middle Woodland period (ca. 2000 years BP ) to the end of the time sequence considered, tooth size in Ohio Valley Native Americans was stable, with minor fluctuations due to genetic drift. At present there is no evidence that major changes in diet at the beginning of the Late Prehistoric period affected tooth size, even though the frequencies of dental pathologies increased dramatically. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Miles Method of Assessing Age from Tooth Wear Revisited

Age-estimation methods tend to under-estimate advanced age and consequently life expectancy of populations. Many methods use age-scales ending in categories such as “50 years and over” without explaining how the upper limits are decided; the general belief that in early times life was short may play a part. Instances now exist of contemporary written records showing that, even when expectation of life is low, some people become septuagenarians or even older. Most methods of age-estimation, commencing with Gustafson's using dental criteria, predominantly root translucency, have recently been scrutinized by several workers but tooth wear as a method has escaped such scrutiny. A wide range of published findings based on tooth wear is therefore reviewed here. Most age-estimating criteria can only be assessed in terms of ordinal stages, unlike root translucency which can be measured on a continuous scale. Tooth wear ultimately ends in total loss of the dentition but, until that stage, has the potential, not yet fully developed, of also being so measured. The revision is reported of the 1989 estimated age-at-death distribution of a skeletal population. Based on tooth wear and tooth loss, the ages of most over 50 years of age were advanced by about 15 years and reasons are given for regarding four as likely to have been over 75 years of age. Palaeodemography today needs such survivors to be identified, however tentatively.     

Tooth wear in two ancient populations of the Khazar Kaganat region in the Ukraine

Tooth wear is a common phenomenon in archaeological material. It has been related to the abrasiveness of diet and to the tribological attrition of teeth of individuals. Numerous investigations have been carried out in north and middle American samples as well as African anthropological material. Not much is known about tooth wear in European cultures. Eleven skulls from Chervona Gusarovka, and 14 skulls from the Upper Saltov sites of the Khazar Kaganat region (8th–10th centuries AD) in eastern Ukraine, with different diets were examined. A total of 208 teeth were studied for tooth wear, caries prevalence and periodontal status. Abrasion grades were determined according to a standardised classification and statistically evaluated. Periodontal status was measured using the distance between the enamel‐cementum junction and alveolar crest and the gingival attachment level respectively. Tooth wear was significantly different (P < 0.01) between the two populations. A low caries prevalence of 4.2% in the Chervona Gusarovka population and 1.7% in the Upper Saltov population was found. Significantly more alveolar crest bone resorption on the lingual side was found in the premolars and anterior teeth of the Chervona Gusarovka population. No significant differences were found regarding gingival attachment levels and gingival recession. It is concluded that the content and mode of food preparation influenced tooth wear, as reflected by the prevalence of dental caries and periodontal diseases in these ancient populations. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The abrasion of modern and archaeological bones by mobile sediments: the importance of transport modes

Fresh, weathered, archaeological and fossilized bones were subjected to a series of abrasion experiments using fine sand in an annular flume in order to link bone-surface abrasion to flow regimes and sediment transport modes, compare these effects on bones of different states, and quantify the extent and types of wear occurring. Flow velocities were chosen to replicate the predominant transport modes of bedload, saltation and suspension.Comparative scanning electron microscopic image analysis was performed to assess the degree and type of wear occurring on each bone type for the different transport modes over a range of exposure periods from 24 to 72 h.These preliminary investigations have shown that both the amount and type of wear experienced was related to the bone type, duration of exposure and the mode of sediment transport with wear being the result of deformation, rather than cutting wear.The formation of scour pits in the sand bed on the upstream side of the bone samples significantly reduced wear, and appears to be an important control mechanism for impact related wear that has been overlooked until now.     

Dental pathology and diet at Apollonia,a Greek colony on the Black Sea

Dental pathology has the potential to provide insight into the composition of the diet and to reveal dietary differences based on age, sex and social status. Human skeletal remains from the Greek colonial site of Apollonia (5^th to 2^nd centuries BC) on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria were analysed for various forms of dental pathology in order to: assess the prevalence of dental disease in the population; compare the dental pathology data from Apollonia with dietary data derived from ancient literary texts and from previous stable isotopic analysis of the colonists' remains; explore variations in dental disease with respect to age and sex; and compare the prevalence of dental pathology in the Apollonians with that of other Greek populations. The composition of the diet, as indicated by the dental pathology data, is consistent with the stable isotopic evidence from Apollonia and with the ancient literary texts, both of which indicate the consumption of a relatively soft, high carbohydrate diet. The higher frequency of dental caries, abscesses, calculus, and antemortem tooth loss in older adults compared with younger ones reflects the age‐progressive nature of these conditions. The lack of significant sex differences in caries, abscesses, calculus and tooth loss corresponds with the stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic data derived from bone collagen, which indicate no significant sex differences in the consumption of dietary protein. In contrast, these findings conflict with the ancient literary texts, which refer to distinct dietary differences between males and females, and with the stable carbon isotopic values derived from bone carbonate, which indicate sex differences with respect to the overall diet. Despite the lack of marked sex differences in dental pathology, overall trends point to subtle dietary differences between males and females. A greater degree of tooth wear in males also hints at possible sex differences in the use of the teeth as tools. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Taphonomic modifications produced by modern brown bears (Ursus arctos)

Actualism has been a fundamental tool in taphonomy. The knowledge of accumulation patterning of modern faunal allows us to interpret the activity of different actors in the archaeological record and to reconstruct the behaviour of preterit animals and humans in which we are interested. However, until now, there are few works that include bone modifications made by bears amongst those made by carnivores. Most data about bone modifications made by bears have been obtained from the archaeo‐palaeontological record. In most of these assemblages, the presence of bears is related to their period of hibernation. Therefore, in these contexts, the changes documented on recovered bear bones are associated only with cannibalism. In this paper, we present an actualistic study about modifications on bones made by modern brown bears. These animals can cause damage similar to those produced by other large carnivores. Generally, bear activity leaves slight damage, mainly on large‐sized animal bones. However, on bones of small‐sized animals and those of greater fragility, the bears can produce abundant damage. Though not usual, bears can break long bones and consume the complete epiphysis. This study suggests that bears have the potential to be agents of bone modification in fossil assemblages. Consequently, they should be considered as a possible agent of modification of faunal remains in the fossil record. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pulp Stones Prevalence in a Historical Sample from Radom,Poland (ad 1791–1811)

This paper provides an investigation of pulp stones in a sample drawn from the historical population of Radom, Poland, dating to between ad 1791 and 1811. This study seeks to determine the frequency of pulp stones, and assess the association between pulp stones and sex, age, dental caries, and dental wear. A total of 780 teeth from 121 adult individuals of both sexes (45 females, 76 males) were examined. Analysis was limited to molars. The average age‐at‐death of each individual was estimated. Total wear scores across the molars were calculated for each individual. Pulp stones were identified by a portable dental X‐ray machine. Pulp stones were found in 94 of 121 individuals and in 273 of 780 molars. No statistically significant correlation was found between pulp stones and age‐at‐death (p  = 0.7625) and sex (p  = 0.0915), but a significant relationship was found between pulp stones and dental wear (p  < 0.0001) and dental caries (p  = 0.0016). Our study found that molars affected by highly advanced dental wear were significantly more often accompanied by pulp stones than molars that had experienced limited wear. Similarly, significant correlations were observed for dental caries. It means that pulp stone formation appears to have been contingent upon the irritation of the tooth crown by factors such as forces acting on the tooth crown leading to dental wear or dental caries. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Aging mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella): refining methods of tooth eruption and wear and bone fusion

This paper refines current methods for aging mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella), one of the most common species hunted by prehistoric humans in the southern Levant. Most importantly, we present a new tooth wear scheme for aging the lower deciduous fourth premolar (dP₄), the lower permanent molars (M₁, M₂, M₃) and the lower fourth premolar (P₄) of the gazelle. Broader wear stages for complete mandibles and individual teeth and bone fusion stages are also provided. Finally, a comparison of the tooth wear and bone fusion data indicates that the two methods can be linked at the important transition when a gazelle reaches adulthood (ca. 18 months of age). The completion of the fusion of the gazelle skeleton corresponds directly to the replacement of the dP₄ by the P₄ and the beginning of wear of the M₃. The coincidence of these aging indicators allows for direct comparison of gazelle bone fusion and tooth wear data.     

Periapical lesions and dental wear in the early Maori

Dental wear and intrabony lesions were evaluated in a sample of 225 skulls (136 male) of pre‐contact New Zealand Maoris. The degree and direction of surface wear was scored according to the method of Molnar ( Molnar 1971 . Human tooth wear, tooth function and cultural variability. American Journal of Physical Anthropology34: 175–190) and revealed severe surface loss in both males and females with horizontal wear being the dominant pattern (62.4% male, 57.5% female). The width of coronal tissue above the pulp chamber, as well as the maximum depth and width of periapical lesions, was measured from both standard radiographs and digital images. The high prevalence of periapical pathology in the Maori underlined the extreme nature of dental wear in these people. It is postulated that this degree of tooth loss may be attributable to a change in diet from large birds to marine‐dependence, the introduction of the kumara to New Zealand, dental erosion and finally, to the excessive masticatory forces exerted by a robust facial complex on normally sized teeth. Fenestrated lesions were highly prevalent (83% of skulls) and were centered mostly on the maxilla, with an even distribution among tooth classes. The finding of periapical lesions in teeth with minimal observable wear was attributed to traumatic occlusion. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Are Teeth Better? Histological Characterization of Diagenesis in Archaeological Bone–Tooth Pairs and a Discussion of the Consequences for Archaeometric Sample Selection and Analyses

Teeth are often the preferred source material for isotopic and genetic assay involving ancient biomolecules. The assumption is that dental tissue preserves better due to its anatomically protected location, the enamel cap, and lower porosity compared to bone. However, this assumption has not been widely tested. Some similarities in diagenetic processes are to be expected due to similarities in structure and chemical composition of dentine and bone. This has led to the suggestion that bone can be used as an indicator of dental preservation, as a pre‐screening technique in the selection of suitable samples for biomolecular studies. Thus, direct testing of the correlation between bone and tooth preservation and diagenesis is needed. This paper reports the results of the histological characterization of diagenetic alterations within 25 human femur–tooth pairs, from a Medieval to modern (AD 1850) cemetery in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The results showed that teeth do indeed preserve better overall, but not always, and that this was dependent on the main diagenetic factor(s) at the burial location. Furthermore, good correlations are found between the microstructural preservation of bone and teeth; similar processes of decay were observed within bone and teeth of the same individual. Overall, the study demonstrated that histological analysis of bone is useful for the identification of degradation processes that affect biomolecular preservation in skeletal material. In this way, sample selection and analytical strategies can be optimized. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Taphonomy,life history,and human exploitation of Rhinoceros sinensis at the Middle Pleistocene site of Panxian Dadong,Guizhou, China

Rhinoceros remains are commonly found in Chinese Pleistocene archaeological localities. This study examines the characteristics of the Rhinoceros sinensis sample from Panxian Dadong, a karst cave in the mountains of western Guizhou province, with a mammalian fauna in association with stone artefacts and human remains from the late Middle Pleistocene (MIS 6‐8). The distribution of skeletal elements shows a predominance of foot (metapodial and phalanges) and lower limb (carpals and tarsals) bones, while the dental age‐at‐death profile, constructed using dental eruption and tooth wear data, is characterised by a high frequency of prime age adult teeth. There is little taphonomic evidence for the involvement of non‐human carnivores or natural agencies in the formation of the faunal assemblage. Instead, it appears that human activities were responsible for the unexpected prevalence of prime age adults. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identifying the Involvement of Multiple Carnivore Taxa with Archaeological Bone Assemblages

Information on the number of carnivore taxa that were involved with archaeological bone assemblages is pertinent to questions of site formation, hominid and carnivore competition for carcasses and the sequence of hominid and carnivore activity at sites. A majority of early archaeological bone assemblages bear evidence that both hominids and carnivores removed flesh and/or marrow from the bones. Whether flesh specialists (felids) or bone-crunchers (hyaenas), or both, fed upon the carcasses is crucial for deciphering the timing of hominid involvement with the assemblages. Here we present an initial attempt to differentiate the tooth mark signature inflicted on bones by a single carnivore species versus multiple carnivore taxa. Quantitative data on carnivore tooth pits, those resembling a tooth crown or a cusp, are presented for two characteristics: the area of the marks in millimetres, and the shape as determined by the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis of the mark. Tooth pits from bones modified by extant East African carnivores and latex impressions of tooth pits from extinct carnivore species are compared to those in the FLK Zinjanthropus bone assemblage. Data on tooth mark shape indicate greater variability in theZinj sample than is exhibited by any individual extant or extinct carnivore species in the comparative sample. Data on tooth mark area demonstrate that bone density is related to the size of marks. Taken together, these data support the inference that felids defleshed bones in the Zinj assemblage and that hyaenas had final access to any grease or tissues that remained.     

骨质修理器——石器修理的新视角

本文介绍在欧洲旧石器时代遗址中发现较多的用于修理石器的动物骨头和牙齿。这类工具被称为骨质修理器,为解读石器修理技术和人类对动物资源的利用提供了重要线索。文章通过实验揭示了骨质修理器的操作过程、效能及其痕迹特征,有助于分析修理器的技术和行为内涵。从技术操作和原材料的来源与供给来看,使用骨头或牙齿修理石器是很有效的方法且成本低。最后从考古材料来看,骨质修理器在欧洲旧石器时代中期和晚期常见,而在东亚尚未发现。这种分布特点可能反映了人类对原材料选择利用和文化传统的差异;另一方面随着我们对骨质修理器的关注和认识,随着动物遗存与石制品综合系统研究的开展,这种工具有可能在更多地区被发现,为研究旧石器时代的技术和人类行为提供更丰富的材料与视角。     

Dental disease in the Nile Valley during the New Kingdom

This study examines evidence for dental disease (caries, abscesses, antemortem tooth loss and severity of dental wear) in Nubian and Egyptian groups living in the Nile Valley during the New Kingdom. Specific attention is given to individuals buried at the site of Tombos, a cemetery in Nubia used during the Egyptian colonial occupation. In addition, three Nubian and two Egyptian samples are included for comparative purposes. While some similarities in condition frequencies between Tombos and the comparative groups are apparent, especially in the rates of caries and abscesses, significant differences in antemortem tooth loss and severity of tooth wear point to variation in these Nile Valley samples. These differences are especially evident for males. Higher rates of these conditions at Tombos may be attributed to the socio‐political and cultural changes taking place during this time of colonial occupation. Changes in foodways and occupational environments may have resulted in stress, as demonstrated by these dental conditions experienced by the Tombos people throughout this transitional period. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dental trauma and antemortem tooth loss in prehistoric Canary Islanders: prevalence and contributing factors

Differential diagnosis of the aetiology of antemortem tooth loss (AMTL) may yield important insights regarding patterns of behaviour in prehistoric peoples. Variation in the consistency of food due to its toughness and to food preparation methods is a primary factor in AMTL, with dental wear or caries a significant precipitating factor. Nutritional deficiency diseases, dental ablation for aesthetic or ritual reasons, and traumatic injury may also contribute to the frequency of AMTL. Systematic observations of dental pathology were conducted on crania and mandibles at the Museo Arqueologico de Tenerife. Observations of AMTL revealed elevated frequencies and remarkable aspects of tooth crown evulsion. This report documents a 9.0% overall rate of AMTL among the ancient inhabitants of the island of Tenerife in the Canary Archipelago. Sex‐specific tooth count rates of AMTL are 9.8% for males and 8.1% for females, and maxillary AMTL rates (10.2%) are higher than mandibular tooth loss rates (7.8%) Dental trauma makes a small but noticeable contribution to tooth loss among the Guanches, especially among males. In several cases of tooth crown evulsion, the dental root was retained in the alveolus, without periapical infection, and alveolar bone was in the initial stages of sequestering the dental root. In Tenerife, antemortem loss of maxillary anterior teeth is consistent with two potential causal factors: (a) accidental falls while traversing volcanic terrain; and (b) interpersonal combat, including traditional wrestling, stick‐fighting and ritual combat. Steep‐walled valleys (barrancos) and lava fields (malpaís) required agile locomotion and occasional vaulting with the aid of a wooden staff. Accidental falls involving facial injury may have contributed to AMTL. Traditional conflict resolution involved competitive wrestling (lucha canaria), stick‐fighting (juego del palo), and ritualised contests involving manual combat. These activities made a small but recognisable impact on anterior dental trauma and tooth loss. Inter‐personal behaviours of such intensity leave their mark on skeletal and dental remains, thereby providing insight into the lives and cultural traditions of the ancient Guanches. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Protocol for Recording Enamel Hypoplasia in Modern and Archaeological Caprine Populations

This paper outlines the first methodology for recording dental enamel hypoplasia in the high‐crowned dentition of modern and archaeological caprine teeth. The method has been developed and trialed on five caprine populations from Orkney (UK); two modern populations (Shetland and North Ronaldsay breeds) and three Neolithic assemblages from the archaeological sites of Knap of Howar, Skara Brae and Holm of Papa Westray. Problems associated with differential tooth wear, as well as the presence of coronal cementum, are discussed, and recommendations are given on the identification and recording of hypoplastic dental defects in caprines. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.