Satellite Remote Sensing of Archaeological Vegetation Signatures in Coastal West Africa

This article discusses how archaeological sites in Sierra Leone, and by extension much of West Africa, can be identified through vegetation patterns (vegetation signatures) detectable in very high-resolution (VHR) multispectral satellite imagery. Settlement sites typically have a differing pattern of vegetation from the surrounding landscape, including concentrations of very large trees with sociocultural and historical significance: cotton (Ceiba pentandra) and baobab (Adansonia digitata). These features are conspicuous elements of the landscape both from the ground and in aerial imagery. Two complementary methods of using VHR multispectral satellite imagery are discussed in this paper: visual interpretation and semi-automated subpixel classification. These techniques are aiding ongoing archaeological survey of the Sierra Leone River Estuary. The impact of recently renewed industrial activity at a site of probable archaeological significance is also assessed through visually interpreted VHR satellite imagery.     

The Integration of VHR Satellite Imagery,GPR Survey and Boring for Archaeological Prospection at the Longcheng Site in Anhui Province,China

This paper is focused on the joint use of non‐invasive and minimal intervention techniques for supporting archaeological prospection. Very high resolution (VHR) satellite imagery analysis and ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) and boring surveys were integrated for the study of the Longcheng site, located near Hefei city in Anhui Province, China, to test their effectiveness and efficiency in prospecting archaeological remains and evaluating their degree of preservation. First, target locations of potential archaeological structures were identified on a WorldView‐2 (WV‐2) satellite image through spatial and radiometric enhancement, interpretation and object‐oriented classification. Second, archaeological features extracted from the WV‐2 imagery were further investigated by a GPR survey that provided detailed cross‐checking information about buried remains. Finally, a subsequent boring survey was conducted across those prospective archaeological structures in order to map the stratigraphic sequences on the basis of colour, compactness and the inclusions contained in the soil, and then to test their correspondence with the GPR data. The boring led to detailed confirmation of the results produced by the remote sensing analyses and GPR surveys, as well as the discovery of datable artefacts. On the basis of all the integrated data, the preliminary layout and structure of the Longcheng site was reconstructed in GIS. Furthermore, the widths, lengths, heights and burial depths of these buried archaeological structures were estimated in detail.     

Surfaces from the Visual Past: Recovering High<Emphasis Type="Bold">-</Emphasis>Resolution Terrain Data from Historic Aerial Imagery for Multitemporal Landscape Analysis

Historic aerial images are invaluable sources of aid to archaeological research. Often collected with large-format photogrammetric quality cameras, these images are potential archives of multidimensional data that can be used to recover information about historic landscapes that have been lost to modern development. However, a lack of camera information for many historic images coupled with physical degradation of their media has often made it difficult to compute geometrically rigorous 3D content from such imagery. While advances in photogrammetry and computer vision over the last two decades have made possible the extraction of accurate and detailed 3D topographical data from high-quality digital images emanating from uncalibrated or unknown cameras, the target source material for these algorithms is normally digital content and thus not negatively affected by the passage of time. In this paper, we present refinements to a computer vision-based workflow for the extraction of 3D data from historic aerial imagery, using readily available software, specific image preprocessing techniques and in-field measurement observations to mitigate some shortcomings of archival imagery and improve extraction of historical digital elevation models (hDEMs) for use in landscape archaeological research. We apply the developed method to a series of historic image sets and modern topographic data covering a period of over 70 years in western Sicily (Italy) and evaluate the outcome. The resulting series of hDEMs form a temporal data stack which is compared with modern high-resolution terrain data using a geomorphic change detection approach, providing a quantification of landscape change through time in extent and depth, and the impact of this change on archaeological resources.     

Optimum temporal and spectral window for monitoring crop marks over archaeological remains in the Mediterranean region

This paper aims to explore the formation of crops marks over archaeological features using remote sensing data. Crop marks are very important to archaeological research since they can reveal in an indirect way buried archaeological remains. Several researches have been able to locate subsurface relics via interpretation of multispectral and hyperspectral satellite images. However the best phenophase (time-window) where these crop marks are enhanced and which spectral bands are the most capable for this enhancement are still an open question for the scientific community. This study aims to address these fundamental aspects of Remote Sensing Archaeology. For this reason an extensive dataset was used: two control archaeological sites were constructed in two different areas of Cyprus (Alampra and Acheleia). In these areas both barley and wheat, were cultivated. In situ spectroradiometric measurements were taken over a whole phenological cycle (2001–2012) for both areas. More than 30 in situ campaigns were performed and more than 2600 ground measurements were collected. The phenological analysis of these measurements have shown that a period of only 15 days is best suitable for monitoring crop marks which is connected with one phenological stage; during the beginning of the boot stage of the crops. This period can be used in areas having similar climatic condition as Cyprus (Mediterranean region). Also as it was found, this phenological stage of crops might be also influenced by the climatic conditions of the area. The evaluation of a proposed Archaeological Index was performed at the Thessalian plain (central Greece), where several Neolithic settlements are established. The evaluation was made using both Hyperion and Landsat images. The results have shown that the proposed Archaeological Index is suitable for the enhancement of crop marks in satellite imagery.     

Investigation of lime mortars and plasters from archaeological excavations in Hippos (Israel) using Electron Paramagnetic Resonance

This study presents the preliminary results of investigation of the lime mortars and plasters from archaeological excavations in Hippos (Israel), using Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. The research was conducted in order to characterize the building material and its reaction to ionizing radiation. The ancient settlement Hippos, situated on the east shore of the Sea of Galilee, functioned from the 3^rd cent. BC until it was destroyed by the earthquake in 749 AD. Lime mortars and plasters show carbonate and locally gypsum character of binder and different kind of aggregate. Samples were γ-irradiated and measured using X-band EPR spectrometer. Computer Resolution Enhancement Method was applied to the complex spectra. Some of the γ-induced EPR signals were attributed to CO₂ ^? and CO₃ ^3? paramagnetic centres. Exponential growth of the dose response curve above 1 kGy and saturation for doses above 20 kGy was observed. For doses lower than 1 kGy the dose response curve has a linear character. The presence of γ-sensitive carbonate paramagnetic centres could indicate that, after further studies, well-chosen samples of mortars and plasters might be suitable for EPR dating, assuming the centres have been sufficiently bleached during the manufacturing process.     

Cartography of the archaeological surveys taken from an Ikonos stereo-pair: a case study of the territory of Hierapolis in Phrygia (Turkey)

The paper analyses methods and issues connected with the elaboration of Ikonos stereo high-resolution satellite images to create a large-scale cartography for archaeological research. This methodology has been used on an area of the ancient territory of Hierapolis in Phrygia (Turkey), where archaeological surveys, developed by the Italian Archaeological Mission, are in progress. In particular, the study area is situated between the modern villages of Yeniköy and Küçükdereköy, for which neither cartographies suitable for ground surveys nor aerophotogrammetrical covers were available. In this area there are a lot of archaeological remains; in particular, a large Hellenistic and Roman settlement and its necropolises, and also an old Turkish settlement, now destroyed. An Ikonos image was ortho-rectified to obtain a space-map of the entire area. It was used to extract vectorial thematic elements (modern topography, hydrology, archaeological remains and traces, etc.) for the production of maps for archaeological research in the tolerances of a 1:10,000 scale.     

Fish Processing in the Mediterranean: Varying Traditions,Technologies and Scales of Production with Particular Reference to the Eastern Mediterranean

Research into the processing of marine resources along the Mediterranean coasts in antiquity reveals an uneven picture. The archaeological evidence for the systematic processing of fish and seafood in the western part is abundant and varied. Here, the production of salted fish and fish sauces seems to have been an important factor contributing to economic growth in many locations. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean, however, archaeological evidence for the processing of marine resources is much less common and is often indirect. Large-scale processing plants are virtually absent from the archaeological record and there are few studies of the remains of fish and shellfish or of other material evidence relating to fish preservation and commerce. Yet written evidence on the subject abounds, but places heavy emphasis on consumption and commerce rather than production. This paper describes the evidence and explores possible reasons for this imbalanced representation in an attempt to assess the actual importance of the processing of marine resources across the whole Mediterranean region. Issues discussed are the shifting emphasis on fish processing across space and through time, archaeological research agendas and methodologies, resource availability and abundance and, finally, issues of scale and visibility.     

Integration of geophysical surveys,ground hyperspectral measurements,aerial and satellite imagery for archaeological prospection of prehistoric sites: the case study of Vésztő-Mágor Tell,Hungary

An integration of geophysical surveys, ground hyperspectral data, aerial photographs and high resolution satellite imagery for supporting archaeological investigations at the multi-component Vészt?-Mágor Tell, located in the southeastern Great Hungarian Plain, is presented in this study. This is one of the first times that all these techniques have been combined and evaluated for retrieving archaeological information. Geophysical explorations, specifically magnetic gradiometry and ground penetrating radar methods, have revealed shallow linear anomalies and curvilinear rings at the Tell. The use of remote sensing images has confirmed the diverse anomalies with respect to geophysics through photointerpretation, radiometric and spatial enhancements. Moreover, several indices from ground hyperspectral data also have revealed stress vegetation anomalies. These integrated results were used to map the main areas of archaeological interest at the Vészt?-Mágor Tell and plan future excavations. It was found that these multiscalar data can be used efficiently for detecting buried archaeological features.     

Potential of satellite based sensors for studying distribution of archaeological sites along palaeo channels: Harappan sites a case study

A large number of remote sensing based studies have shown evidence of a prominent river system, which has become buried under sand cover of Thar Desert sometime during late Holocene. This major river has been identified as Sarasvati, a legendary river mentioned in ancient Indian texts. This region is rich with archaeological sites of Harappan civilization (2500–500 BC). The present study has utilised digital image processing and enhancements techniques on multisensor satellite data followed by field investigations to reconfirm known traces and detect hitherto unknown traces of palaeochannels of Sarasvati river through parts of Indus alluvial plain in Thar desert. Potentials of IRS-P4 OCM (Primarily an Ocean Color Sensor, with eight narrow spectral channels, high radiometric resolution of 12 bits and large swath of 1420 m) could be exploited for the first time to detect hitherto unknown traces of palaeochannels of Sarasvati river through sand dune topography of Thar desert in parts of Western Rajasthan in India and adjoining parts of Pakistan by applying Principal Component Analysis technique. Pattern of palaochannels indicate westward migration of the Sarasvati river in parts of Indus alluvial plain. Database of more than 1000 archaeological sites compiled from various published sources, prepared in GIS environment could be utilised to understand their relationship with identified courses of the Sarasvati palaeochannels. Through this study it was found that there is a large spread of Mature Harappan (2200–1700 BC) sites along the palaeochannel of the Sarasvati and its tributaries in north-west India, but late Harappan (1700–1500 BC) sites are limited to further west in adjoining regions of Pakistan indicating that the shift of cluster of settlements have followed the pattern of river migration towards west. Digital terrain modelling by superimposing archaeological sites on SRTM DEM along with draped satellite data (Resourcesat-1 AWiFS and IRS-1D LISS-III) has helped in identifying geomorphological guides for archaeological investigations such as presence of relict natural levees seen as raised mounds and coincidence of known archaeological sites over them. It is suggested that other relict natural levees or raised mounds adjoining the identified palaochannel courses may be taken up for further archaeological exploration.     

Digital Support for Archaeology

Abstract

We describe an interdisciplinary approach in which computer scientists develop techniques to support archaeology. In the Reading Images for the Cultural Heritage (RICH) project, a variety of methods have been developed to support archaeologists in the visualization, categorization, and characterization of archaeological objects, such as medieval glass, coins, ceramics, and seeds. The methods are based on image processing and machine learning algorithms that are tailored to the task at hand. We describe the algorithms and illustrate their application on archaeological datasets. The virtues and pitfalls of the interdisciplinary approach to archaeology are discussed.     

Thinking Through Networks: A Review of Formal Network Methods in Archaeology

This review aims to expose the potential of formal network methods for archaeology by tracing the origins of the academic traditions, network models, and techniques that have been most influential to archaeologists. A brief discussion of graph theoretic applications in archaeology reveals how graph visualization and analysis was used since the 1960s in a very similar way to later network analysis applications, but did not seem to have influenced the more widespread adoption of network techniques over the past decade. These recent archaeological applications have been strongly influenced by two academic traditions, social network analysis and sociophysics. The most influential and promising techniques and models adopted from these traditions are critically discussed. This review reveals some general trends which are considered to be the result of two critical issues that will need to be addressed in future archaeological network analysis: (1) a general unawareness of the historicity and diversity of formal network methods both within and outside the archaeological discipline has resulted in a very limited methodological scope; (2) the adoption or development of network methods has very rarely been driven by specific archaeological research questions and is dominated by a few popular models and techniques, which has in some cases resulted in a routinized explanatory process. This review illustrates, however, the great potential of formal network methods for archaeology and argues that, if this potential is to be applied in a critical way, a broad multidisciplinary scope is necessary and specific archaeological research contexts should dominate applications.     

Satellite Remote Sensing Methods for Monitoring Archaeological Tells in the Middle East

Abstract

Using a variety of types of satellite imagery (SPOT, Corona, Landsat, and Quickbird) and concentrating on archaeological sites in the Egyptian floodplain, this paper proposes methods for monitoring the rate of archaeological site destruction in the Middle East. This image analysis shows how tells can be documented and monitored from computers anywhere in the world, emphasizing the multispectral capabilities and applications of satellites. The effects of population growth, looting, urban expansion, and war on archaeological sites in Egypt are reviewed, and a system is proposed to record sites by focusing on their individual spectral profiles. The analysis demonstrates how satellite imagery analysis can be applied to similar flood plain environments in Israel, Jordan, Syria, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, and Iraq.     

良渚遗址群考古地理信息系统构建探索

运用GIS软件对良渚遗址群多源数据进行数字化处理,构建良渚遗址GIS应用模型,为进一步考古研究与文物保护提供更为科学的方法和便捷的管理手段。本文阐述良渚遗址群考古信息的空间数据库与属性信息库的建设,并简单介绍了数据采集与处理过程。     

A protocol for recording linear enamel hypoplasia on archaeological pig teeth

A method is proposed for recording linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) present on archaeological pig teeth. The methods described have been developed and tested on material from five archaeological sites of a wide range of periods; Durrington Walls (UK), Wellin, Ename, Sugny and Londerzeel (Belgium). Recommendations are made on what teeth, surface, cusp, and side to record, as well as on details of the visibility, the identification and the measurement of LEH lines. Problems encountered with the application of the recording protocol to the five case studies are detailed, and possible interpretative drawbacks are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Methods for the extraction of archaeological features from very high-resolution Ikonos-2 remote sensing imagery,Hisar (southwest Turkey)

Archaeological research in the territory of Sagalassos is a multidisciplinary project covering scientific disciplines traditionally linked to archaeology and also new technologies such as very high-resolution remote sensing with sufficient radiometric and spatial resolution (<2.5 m). This paper focuses on the evaluation of GIS-, pixel- and object-based techniques for automatic extraction of archaeological features from Ikonos-2 satellite imagery, which are then compared to a visual interpretation of ancient structures. The study was carried out on the unexcavated archaeological site of Hisar (southwest Turkey). Although all techniques are able to detect archaeological structures from Ikonos-2 imagery, none of them succeed in extracting features in a unique spectral class. Various landscape elements, including archaeological remains, can be automatically classified when their spectral characteristics are different. However, major difficulties arise when extracting and classifying archaeological features such as wall remnants, which are composed of the same material as the surrounding substrate. Additionally, archaeological structures do not have unique shape or colour characteristics, which can make the extraction more straightforward. In contrast to automatic extraction methods, a simple visual interpretation performs rather well. The methods presented in this paper can be applied with variable success to archaeological structures composed of the same material as the surrounding substrate, which is often the case.     

Archaeological Site Information Modelling and Management Based on Close-Range Photogrammetry and GIS

New challenges in management and restoration of archaeological sites require the utilization of advanced technologies and systems to assist in preserving the important legacy of human heritage. These challenges include monitoring and preserving of site landscapes, maintenance and rehabilitation of archaeological structures, and quality and safety management. In this research, an integrated methodology based on photogrammetry and Three-Dimensional (3D) Geographic Information System (GIS) is developed to capture and model essential details needed for the proper management of archaeological sites. Recent advances in digital imagery and modelling utilize photogrammetry as an efficient technique for 3D modelling of archaeological sites to derive accurate measurements of size, shape, position, and texture of objects using two-dimensional digital photographs. Spatial data that include aerial stereo photographs, satellite images, close-range photos, terrestrial surveying and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are integrated within the design of the proposed model. The approach is validated with a case study of Ajloun Castle, one of the ancient and important preserved structures located in Jordan. Various sequential levels of details have been developed for the castle: Orthophoto, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), structures geometry and site layout and 3D textured model. The suggested methodology is expected to be efficient in modelling and documenting archaeological structures. The developed model is utilized to assess the management of archaeological structures through feasibility analysis, rehabilitation decisions, and safety planning.     

A Regional Approach to Ancient Urban Studies in Greece Through Multi-Settlement Geophysical Survey

The systematic exploration of large archaeological sites in the Mediterranean has evolved considerably since the “big dig” excavations. Pedestrian field surveying and remote sensing applications, including satellite and airborne image analysis, are now practical and relatively cost-efficient methods of characterizing large and diachronically diverse landscapes on regional scales. However, the use of geophysical techniques as a means for exploring manifold archaeological contexts is still in its infancy. In this paper, we highlight the advantages of archaeological geophysics to conduct regional surveys in the Mediterranean. Through a multi-site geophysical fieldwork campaign to investigate the patterns and dynamics of ancient cities in Greece, we show how geophysics offer new opportunities for characterizing the spatial attributes and regional dynamics of urban landscapes, and, in doing so, we make an argument for its wider adoption on regional survey projects.     

Historic landscape management: a validation of quantitative soil thin-section analyses

The archaeological interpretation of past land management practices can be greatly enhanced through examination of soil thin sections. Features relating to manuring practice are among those key to interpreting agricultural practices. The sources and the processes leading to the distribution of these manure materials may further improve knowledge of the past landscape utilisation. The use of quantitative analyses to examine soil thin sections opens the possibility of considering these relationships between manured areas in greater detail and to extract more subtle spatial and temporal changes in past management. In this study the validation of this methodology has been tested with quantitative image analysis methods used to examine manure inputs to a well-documented historical landscape of Papa Stour, Shetland, where intensive manuring has been practised until the 1960s. By using both historic and ethnographic evidence to validate the image analysis protocol, differences in spatial and temporal distribution are examined for the practices of manuring with both fuel residues and with turf. The validation of the hypotheses expected from ethnographic and historical data that quantitative soils-based evidence allows the definition of variations in manuring strategies and provides a more secure basis from which to interpret manuring management strategies in archaeological landscapes.