Two cases of leprosy from Žatec (Bohemia), dated to the turn of the 12th century and confirmed by DNA analysis for Mycobacterium leprae

The leprosy known today primarily from tropical areas was a relatively common disease in European Middle Ages. This article describes two skeletons bearing palaeopathological indications of leprosy from a cemetery at ?atec in North-West Bohemia (Czech Republic). The archaeological context clearly shows that these individuals were buried prior to the second decade of the 12th century, and most probably in the second half of 11th century. This rules out the possibility that these individuals might have contracted the disease in connection with the Crusades, in which a Bohemian contingent under Prince Vladislav II participated from 1141 to 1142. Molecular genetic methods were applied to detect specific DNA fragments of the causative agent of leprosy, Mycobacterium leprae. The nasal concha of one individual yielded DNA that could be directly sequenced after isolation and amplification. The vertebral body of the second individual, on the other hand, did not provide DNA of sufficient quality for direct sequencing and only weak amplification was detectable. The morphological and genetic analyses both indicate that leprosy existed prior to the Crusades in medieval Bohemia, albeit that its prevalence was probably not as great as in northern or western Europe.     

Introduced taro (Colocasia esculenta) and yams (Dioscorea spp.) in Podtanean (2700–1800 years BP) deposits from Mé Auré Cave (WMD007), Moindou,New Caledonia

Plant microfossil analysis was carried out on deposits bearing Podtanean (2700–1800 years BP) ceramics from Mé Auré Cave, Moindou, New Caledonia. Starch residues of introduced Colocasia esculenta, Dioscorea esculenta and one or more, undifferentiated Dioscorea species were identified. The latter include Dioscorea alata, D. bulbifera, D. nummularia and D. pentaphylla. The data provide the first direct evidence of prehistoric horticulture in New Caledonia.     

Neolithic Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) from the Island of Gotland show early contacts with the Swedish mainland

Previous research probing early migrations and contacts in the Baltic Sea area is characterized by the analysis of different chronologies and subsistent strategies on all sides of the Sea. Several studies performed on artifact typology, ceramics, grave rituals and physical anthropology ended with varying results. Although the question of human origins remains inconclusive, in this study, we rely on the phylogeography of an animal associated with humans to elucidate findings regarding prehistoric human migration and contacts.Hedgehogs, along with other fauna on Gotland, were brought over to the island by humans. We examined hedgehog mitochondrial DNA from the Pitted Ware Culture (Middle Neolithic). The genetic signatures of the animals on the island were investigated to determine the animal’s origin.From the 23 bones originally examined, twelve bones from all five locations studied yielded reliable results and resembled published extant Erinaceus europaeus sequences from Sweden, Norway and Denmark. We postulate that a western heritage for the Neolithic hedgehogs on Gotland indicates early human contact with the Swedish mainland.     

Ancient DNA analysis of desiccated wheat grains excavated from a Bronze Age cemetery in Xinjiang

Wheat has been one of the most important crop in Eurasia since the Neolithic period. Understanding the spread of wheat cultivation is crucial to understanding the spread of agriculture as a whole and the interactions between prehistoric populations across the Eurasian continent. However, the routes by which wheat cultivation spread eastwards have been poorly understood to date, due to the scarcity of plant remains recovered from archaeological sites. Desiccated wheat grains excavated from the Xiaohe cemetery in Xinjiang, and dated to the early Bronze Age, show excellent DNA preservation. Here we present an ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis of wheat (Triticum sp.) grains excavated from Xiaohe and provide the first definitive evidence for bread wheat in China during the Bronze Age. The nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1 and ITS2) and the intergenic spacer region (IGS) were amplified. The IGS region within the D genome of wheat has a 71 bp insertion that is absent from corresponding regions in the A and B genomes. The results showed that the Xiaohe wheat showed most sequence similarity to hexaploid bread wheat (Triticum aestivum), including the characteristic insertion into the D genome. The presence of bread wheat at the Xiaohe cemetery is discussed in relation to it having spread into Xinjiang by the Bronze Age, providing new insight into the origins of bread wheat in East Asia.     

Ectopic paragonimiasis from 400-year-old female mummy of Korea

Of the parasite eggs discovered in ancient samples from Korean archaeological sites, Paragonimus spp. are of particular importance in that they are regarded as one of the most insidious trematode infection sources. Although their infection prevalence decreased rapidly in the early 20th century, archaeoparasitological studies on the species are still required, as historical knowledge of paragonimiasis remains far from comprehensive. Fortunately, we recently were given a chance to examine a medieval Korean mummy in a good state of preservation. Using morphological techniques, we discovered evidence of ectopic paragonimiasis in the sample from the 17th-century female. When the ITS 2 gene was extracted, amplified and sequenced from Paragonimus eggs, it showed 100% homology to the sequences of modern Paragonimus westermani reported from Korea and Japan, forming a cluster distinct from South Asian P. westermani. Our report is the first-ever analysis of ancient Paragonimus DNA from any archaeological field in the world. The ectopic paragonimiasis diagnosis made in this study, especially involving the liver sample, also is the first of its kind in archaeoparasitology.     

Burial containers – A hidden aspect of mortuary practices: Archaeothanatology at Ban Non Wat,Thailand

Research on mortuary practices has attracted a wide following for the role it can play in determination of individual social identity and population social structure. One aspect of mortuary practices that is rarely addressed, except where physical remnants are recovered, is the form of burial containers. Archaeothanatology is a taphonomically based methodology applied to infer the form of such containers when no material evidence remains. This paper shows how the archaeothanatological approach can be applied post hoc, with 133 adult burials from the prehistoric site of Ban Non Wat analyzed. Temporal changes in container form were expected as subsistence, technology, and social organization transformed over 1850 years. The deceased were predominantly loosely wrapped in non-durable material or placed in wide coffins, although individuals were buried in other contexts, with a peak in variety towards the end of the Bronze Age and early Iron Age. In combination with evidence from other sites in the area, our results identify a reduction in the variety of container forms used within sites in the mid to late Iron Age. We have shown the value of archaeothanatology as a contributor to research on mortuary practices, in particular having shown that it may be usefully applied post-excavation.     

Chemical characterisation of anthro-technosols from Bronze to Middle Age in Bologna (Italy)

The aim of this research was the understanding of a peculiarly expanded soil sequence in Bologna (i.e., Roman Bononia, Etruscan Felsina), one of the most important archaeological poles for Etruscan colonisation and settlement in northern Italy. The uppermost part of the chronological sequence dating from the Bronze Age up to medieval and modern times was analysed for the first time from geochemical and pedological viewpoints. The integration of archaeological, stratigraphical and pedological data supported by soil chemical analysis, a fundamental key for reconstructing a correct evolutionary sequence, made it possible to recognise seventeen buried Soil Units (ancient Technosols, Anthrosols and Cambisols) characterised by different kinds and degrees of intensity of anthropogenic influence. In some cases, the results show a relatively severe element concentration (Cu, Sn) mainly characterising the Iron Age (Etruscan and Villanovan) stratigraphic units, representing an ancient industrial pollution linked to local dispersal of melting activity dump products generated in near-site surrounding areas. Therefore, a comparison was possible between natural blank and anthropogenically polluted geochemical values for some local soils.     

Ancient Iberian horses: a method to recover DNA from archaeological samples buried under sub-optimal conditions for preservation

Existing methods to extract, amplify, and sequence ancient DNA (aDNA) from horse bone and teeth were optimized to recover DNA from a depositional environment of highly permeable acidic soil. DNA was successfully retrieved using 0.10g of bone powder from horse (Equus sp.) remains dating to 25 K years utilizing the methods optimized for this archaeological material. The genetic analyses were performed in a facility that is dedicated to ancient DNA research (Paleo-DNA Laboratory, Thunder Bay, ON, Canada) and has not been previously used to analyse modern or ancient horse DNA. Research was replicated to obtain reliable sequencing results for six samples from the Iberian Peninsula that were consistent with published sequences of Equus caballus. The archaeological sequence data obtained support hypotheses that promote the significance that the Iberian Peninsula has had to the multi-focal centres of origin for horse domestication and distribution of modern horse breeds. The data presented may provide evidence of the existence of an Iberian refugium for Equus during the last glacial period, 10 K years BP. Further molecular data analyses will enhance the ideas presented by this data and our understanding of horse domestication and phylogeny. The optimization of molecular techniques to successfully obtain DNA using minimally destructive, cosmetically sensitive techniques from archaeological remains endeavours to foster further cooperation between museums and researchers.     

A short note on starch and xylem of Colocasia esculenta (taro) in archaeological deposits from Pitcairn Island,southeast Polynesia

We present results of starch analysis of archaeological deposits from Pitcairn Island. High concentrations of starch grains preserved in cell membranes, and xylem tracheary elements, consistent with introduced Colocasia esculenta (taro) were found. Because of limited age control, we are uncertain if the microfossils are prehistoric. Problems associated with identifying taxa with small starch grains in extractions from weathered deposits are highlighted.     

First ancient bovine DNA evidence from India: difficult but not impossible

Ancient DNA isolation from the tropical countries has been shown to be very difficult in the past. Here for the first time we have been successful in isolating ancient DNA from Indian cattle samples. We were able to obtain DNA and sequence the partial mitochondrial D-loop in 3 of the 15 bovine fossil samples ranging in age from 2000 BC to 1000 AD, and were able to further identify the most recent sample as being of Bos indicus origin. Our results on ancient DNA extraction from India will encourage other researchers in this field to carry out further studies of ancient DNA from Indian bovine samples. Our results represent the first successful extraction and amplification of bovine ancient DNA from India, and thus may pave the road for a better understanding of demographic and historical processes of cattle domestication that has taken place in this region.     

Intensification of shellfish exploitation: evidence of species-specific deviation from traditional expectations

As modern humans grapple with the repercussions of their extensive environmental impacts, archaeologists are increasingly looking toward the past to understand the nature and extent of prehistoric human impact on the environment. Many researchers rely heavily on archaeological correlates of resource intensification as a proxy measures of resource depletion, a profound and often catastrophic human impact. However, the traditional conceptualization of the archaeological correlates of shellfish intensification disregards a large amount of species-specific variation. This paper presents archaeomalacological data from Santa Cruz Island, California. The shell midden deposits CA-SCRI-480 contain a high density of Tivela stultorum (Pismo clam). Statistical analysis of the shellfish assemblage reveals significant variation in both the size and quantity of Pismo clam that people collected through time. This paper investigates this unique patterning with due consideration of the natural ecology and life history of the species and illustrates species-specific deviation from the traditional archaeological correlates of shellfish intensification. Increased collaboration with ecologists and biologists can help refine models of intensification when necessary in order create more sophisticated understanding of prehistoric human–resource interactions.     

Reassessing the northern limit of maize consumption in North America: stable isotope,plant microfossil,and trace element content of carbonized food residue

In combination, the analysis of carbonized food residue for stable C and N isotopes, elemental composition, and plant microfossils (phytoliths and starch granules) offers a powerful tool for understanding patterns of prehistoric maize (Zea mays) consumption in small-scale societies. Using this approach, we conclude that maize was more widely consumed in North America than previously suspected. Between ∼AD 700 and 1600, despite little or no archaeological evidence of gardening, corn was a widespread component of diet on the eastern Canadian prairies. This pattern, furthermore, extended into the adjacent boreal forest at about the same time. However, carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) values on food residue samples vary widely, suggesting significant overall dietary differences from one region to the next. Analysis of a subset of residue samples for elemental composition (using ICP-OES [inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry]) may help identify broad trends in the provenience of foods consumed at these sites.     

Focused,intense and long-term: evidence for granular ark (Anadara granosa) exploitation from late Holocene shell mounds of Blue Mud Bay,northern Australia

Explanatory frameworks relating to the appearance of shell mounds and the exploitation of molluscs (particularly the sand/mudflat bivalve Anadara granosa) during the late Holocene have tended to emphasise stasis and continuity. Very few analyses have adequately investigated the intensity of human predation during the mound period and the potential effects on the particular prey species. To this end, the biological and ecological characteristics of A. granosa, the dominant molluscan species for much of the known period of occupation in the region, are considered in detail, in combination with assessing the potential for human impact through predation via the measurement of 9106 A. granosa valves from three shell mounds. In explaining long-term economic change in this region of northern Australia, the focus has been placed on the analysis of relative changes and trends through time in prehistoric resource exploitation.     

Molecular markers for the discrimination of Triticum turgidum L. subsp. dicoccum (Schrank ex Schübl.) Thell. and Triticum timopheevii (Zhuk.) Zhuk. subsp. timopheevii

The persistent uncertainty on the classification of the “new” glume wheat found in Neolithic and Bronze Age sites from Greece and other European settlements might be resolved only through analysis of its ancient DNA. Tools able to discriminate among different Triticum species on the basis of scarce, very damaged DNA, are therefore essential. While current attempts concentrate on DNA fragments sequencing and comparison, in some instances PCR-based selective amplification techniques might offer a cheaper and quicker alternative. The purpose of this research was therefore the identification of species-specific primers, able to distinguish caryopses of Triticum timopheevii subsp. timopheevii from those of Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccum. Primers and their working conditions were defined and optimized using DNA from modern accessions. The ribosomal primers ITS1 tim and ITS2 tim, and the nuclear primer acetyl-coenzyme A tim clearly discriminated the sequences of Triticum timopheevii from other species. Finally, Neolithic charred wheat grains found in the sites of Sammardenchia (Pozzuolo del Friuli, Udine) and La Marmotta (Lago di Bracciano, Roma), belonging to the “new” wheat type or to emmer, were tested with the three selected primers. However, the results were not conclusive, because the samples analysed were apparently too degraded to yield useful DNA.     

Starch grain characterization of Prosopis chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz and P. flexuosa DC,and the analysis of their archaeological remains in Andean South America

The fruit (pods) of Prosopis (Fabaceae) are frequently recovered from pre-Hispanic Argentinian archaeological sites, suggesting that this genus was of importance in ancient economies in this region. Yet it is only recently that archaeobotanists have begun to carry out systematic research into this genus. Therefore many questions remain to be addressed concerning the food value of Prosopis fruit, and its potential contribution. This paper examines starch from the pods of two species, Prosopis flexuosa and Prosopis chilensis, for the purposes of describing and classifying their morphological features and biometrical parameters. Pods of both species were gathered from two extremes (northern and southern) of the Hualfín Valley, Catamarca, Argentina. Starch abundance is estimated and compared with that of Zea mays, an economically important plant with high concentrations of starch. This paper reveals that Prosopis pods contain very low amounts of starch compared to starch-rich edible species. Despite this, the recovery of Prosopis starch grains can be successfully used to assess archaeological tool uses. Prosopis starch grains were found to be highly variable in shape. Grain size ranged between 10 and 20 μm. Granule irregularity and the high birefringence under polarized light are two of the most important diagnostic features. No significant statistical differences were found in the structure (morphology, size and hilum) of the starch of the same species from both localities. Finally, the implications for the role of this plant in past societies are discussed.     

Selective reburial: a potential approach for the in situ preservation of waterlogged archaeological wood in wetland excavations

Excavations at Dispilio, a prehistoric lakeside settlement in northern Greece, have revealed a significant number of vertical wooden piles that need to be protected during and after excavation. Lifting of the piles is not possible and approaches such as reburial, cannot currently be implemented as excavation is still in progress. In 2005, several posts were “selectively buried” on an experimental basis, by encasing them in PVC pipes and backfilling with the surrounding sediment. This approach appeared to be capable of protecting the piles during excavation and be a potential solution for their post-excavation preservation. This preliminary study sets out to asses if this alternative approach to reburial could be an effective in situ preservation method.     

Early and mid Holocene tool-use and processing of taro (Colocasia esculenta), yam (Dioscorea sp.) and other plants at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of Papua New Guinea

Recent multidisciplinary investigations document an independent emergence of agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. In this paper we report preliminary usewear analysis and details of prehistoric use of stone tools for processing starchy food and other plants at Kuk Swamp. Morphological diagnostics for starch granules are reported for two potentially significant economic species, taro (Colocasia esculenta) and yam (Dioscorea sp.), following comparisons between prehistoric and botanical reference specimens. Usewear and residue analyses of starch granules indicate that both these species were processed on the wetland margin during the early and mid Holocene. We argue that processing of taro and yam commences by at least 10,200 calibrated years before present (cal BP), although the taro and yam starch granules do not permit us to distinguish between wild or cultivated forms. From at least 6950 to 6440 cal BP the processing of taro, yam and other plants indicates that they are likely to have been integrated into cultivation practices on the wetland edge.     

Tuberculosis among Iron Age individuals from Tyva,South Siberia: palaeopathological and biomolecular findings

The study focuses on the evidence for tuberculosis apparent in an Iron Age population recovered from the cemetery of Aymyrlyg, Tyva (Tuva), South Siberia. A recent wholly molecular study of five of the cases confirmed the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) complex DNA in four of the individuals. In all cases the disease was caused by strains of Mycobacterium bovis rather than Mycobacterium tuberculosis and represents the first positive identification of the bovine form of the disease in archaeological human remains. Details of the palaeopathological characteristics of the cases are provided in the current paper, while the molecular observations are extended to include a quantitative evaluation of the surviving mycobacterial DNA using real-time PCR. The observation that bovine tuberculosis was the pathogen responsible is discussed in terms of current understanding of the evolution of the MTB complex as well as the implications for future ancient DNA studies in this area.     

Rethinking Easter Island's ecological catastrophe

Rapa Nui (Easter Island) has become a paragon for prehistoric human induced ecological catastrophe and cultural collapse. A popular narrative recounts an obsession for monumental statuary that led to the island's ecological devastation and the collapse of the ancient civilization. Scholars offer this story as a parable of today's global environmental problems. In this paper, I review new and emerging Rapa Nui evidence, compare ecological and recently acquired palaeo-environmental data from the Hawaiian and other Pacific Islands, and offer some perspectives for the island's prehistoric ecological transformation and its consequences. The evidence points to a complex historical ecology for the island; one best explained by a synergy of impacts, particularly the devastating effects of introduced rats (Rattus exulans). This perspective questions the simplistic notion of reckless over-exploitation by prehistoric Polynesians and points to the need for additional research.     

First evidence of Equus asinus L. in the Chalcolithic disputes the Phoenicians as the first to introduce donkeys into the Iberian Peninsula

Two equid species have been documented in the Pleistocene of the Iberian Peninsula, the horse Equus caballus, and the Eurasian hemione Equus hydruntinus. While the former survived the Holocene–Pleistocene until now, the timing for the extinction of the latter is unclear. Scarce, fragmented archaeological remains assess the presence of small equids living in the Holocene of Iberia. Those could possibly correspond to the Eurasian hemione although unambiguous morphological identification is often not possible. With the find of an equid tooth from Leceia, a Chalcolithic fortified site in Portugal, and using both morphological and mitochondrial genome analyses, we demonstrate for the first time the presence of a new equid species in Holocene Iberia, namely a donkey (Equus asinus). Radiocarbon dating of the tooth to Cal 2340–2130, and 2080–2060 BC with 95% probability, demonstrates that donkeys were present in Iberia well before the arrival of Phoenicians in the first quarter of the first millennium BC (900–750 years BC), which were considered so far as the first who introduced donkeys in the region.