西汉前期工商业政策的演变及其影响再认识——兼论史学研究的价值取向

西汉前期财政经济政策的一个重要举措是实行重农抑商政策。在封建自然经济条件下,重农是必然的选择;政策的变数主要在于工商业,对社会经济发展的影响亦在于工商业,争议同样源于工商业。因而,考察重农抑商其重点在于分析工商业政策的特点及其演变。对此,学术界已作了不少研究,但是,仍有一些领域有待开拓,对主要问题的认识也需要深。     

Presidential Coequality: The Evolution of a Concept

The assertion that the presidency is coequal in power to the other branches in the American system of government is often heard, has been suggested by all recent presidents, and has even made its way into political science. But tracing the history of the concept demonstrates that this assertion is an invention of quite recent vintage. Those who wrote and favored the Constitution did not make such claims, nor did early presidents. Even Andrew Jackson's famous and, to his generation, shocking assertion of coequality coincident with his censure was not really a claim of equal power between branches. According to our systematic analysis of presidential rhetoric it was Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford who initiated and popularized the idea of interbranch coequality. They did so to defend themselves in two episodes of substantial presidential vulnerability: Watergate and the ensuing midterm elections. Subsequent presidents have elevated something that would have seemed wrong and absurd to any founder into a blithe truism. This belief harms governance by creating both artificially high expectations for the president and a presumption of institutional stasis. The “second constitution” based on popular beliefs about interbranch relations continues to evolve, as much a product of happenstance as of rational design.     

The Evolution of Happiness

The authors reveal a dramatic but previously unsuspected pattern in archaeological illustration: the presence of smiling faces composed of artifacts arranged in plates of archaeological illustrations and photographs. In this paper, we explore the possible meanings that lurk behind and emerge from these mysterious portraits, questioning whether they are byproducts of human agency or whether, instead, they represent new examples of how material objects act back on (or “interfere with”) human agency.     

西方古典文献学的名与实

以希腊文、拉丁文为载体的西方古典文献学,希腊文作"philologia"。在近代西方各国学界在根据各自的语言整理、研究古文献藉以溯源其共同的"古代"过程中,西方古典文献学的名称与内容在不同历史时期、不同语境中均曾发生过变化,但总体上的沿革类似于中国古典文献学或传统文献学,即由校雠而校雠学而文献学,最终被冠之以"古典的"则意在强调"希腊、拉丁的"这一属性。     

酋邦的演化

在文明与早期国家探源的战略性课题中,酋邦理论具有十分重要的意义。酋邦作为对19世纪摩尔根社会进化理论的发展和20世纪新进化论的重要概念,赋予了平等的部落社会与作为阶级社会象征的国家之间这个过渡阶段以明确的科学定义,使这方面的探索有了一个有用的分析工具。至于这个概念的具体内涵和分析视野,则是始终处于发展之中的。酋邦概念最早是20世纪50年代奥博格在对南美印第安人的研究中提出的,60年代塞维斯根据夏威夷群岛原始文化的资料提出了相对比较系统的酋邦理论。此后酋邦问题引起学术界越来越多的重视和关注,很多学者参与到这方面的研究和讨论之中,使研究深度和广度都达到了很高的水平。本文是美洲研究学会1988年1月举行的一个酋邦研讨会的纪要,曾发表在1989年2月号的《当代人类学》(Current Anthropology)上,稍作修改后又收入厄尔主编的《酋邦:权力、经济和意识形态》(Chiefdoms:Power,Economy,andIdeology)(1991年出版)一书中。这个研讨会是该领域一流学者们的一次集会,对酋邦问题进行了非常深入全面的探讨。会上所提出的一些问题,不仅仅是对当时酋邦研究成果的一次总结,而且对于后来包括今天在内的国家文明起源研究都有十分重要的意义。会议不仅探讨了酋邦的概念,更着重探讨了酋邦产生和存在的动力机制。首先,酋邦被认为具有极大的多样性。从规模上可分为简单酋邦和复杂酋邦;从财政基础而言,根据支付媒介的特点,可以区分为产品经济型酋邦和财富经济型酋邦;从结构上,酋邦可以分为集体型酋邦和个体型酋邦。其次,伴随对当时盛行的人口压力是社会演变主要原因学说的反思,学者们全面探讨了酋邦权力起源可能存在的所有动力,主要从三个方面(对经济、战争和意识形态的控制)总结为十项策略。与会者的一种共识是,权力的三个组成部分某种程度体现了不同的策略,而有效的统治似乎有赖于多种不同策略结合使用,以便集中权力并克服单一权力来源的局限性,这是各地案例中较为普遍的现象。另外,会议还讨论了环境在酋邦发展中的作用、酋邦的规模与层次、以及酋邦的轮回等等其它一些重要问题。酋邦概念在1980年代引入中国后也引起了我国学界的关注和讨论,然而由于对国外文献理解上的不足,一些介绍酋邦的文章难免传递一些误导性的观点。本文作为酋邦专题讨论的纪要或综述,体现了当今国际学界对酋邦概念的认识和研究,为我们了解酋邦探究的意义提供一个比较准确和全面的认识。     

从《苏州商团档案汇编》看近代苏州商团

1906年成立的苏商体育会是苏州商团的前身,也是近代中国较早由商人创办的新型准军事团体,1912年初发展成为苏州商团公会,直至1936年2月才宣告结束。与上海和武汉等地的商团相比较,苏州商团的特点是与商会的关系十分密切,组织比较细密,规章也比较完备,是统一的一元化组织,而且发展的历史较长,虽在政治上没有突出影响,但在维护地方治安和保护商人利益等方面却发挥了重要作用。180余万字的《苏州商团档案汇编》是国内外即将出版的第一部大型商团档案文献资料,内容丰富,对研究近代苏州商团乃至整个近代中国商团都具有很高的史料价值。     

The Modern Commercial Aspect of an Ancient Superstition

GODS AND FIGHTING MEN. The story of the Tuatha De danaan and the Fianna of Ireland, arranged and put into English by LADY GREGORY, with a Preface by W. B. YEATS and a Foreword by DANIEL MURPHY. Gerards Cross (Colin Smythe) 1970. Pp. 367, 1 plate. Reviewed by Ellen Ettlinger.

LEOPOLD SCHMIDT. HINTERGLAS, ZEUGNISSE EINER ALTEN HAUSKUNST. Salzburg (Residenz Verlag) 1972. Pp. 159. 48 coloured plates. Reviewed by Ellen Ettlinger.

VILMA MÖNCKEBERG. DAS MÄRCHEN UND UNSERE WELT. ERFAHRUNGEN UND EINSICHTEN. Düsseldorf (Eugen Diederichs Verlag) 1972. Pp. 235. Reviewed by Ellen Ettlinger.

NINE NORSE STUDIES. By G. TURVILLE-PETRE. London, 1972. Pp. 180. Reviewed by Jacqueline Simpson.

RAGNARQK: AN INVESTIGATION INTO OLD NORSE CONCEPTS OF THE FATE OF THE GODS. By JOHN STANLEY MARTIN. Assen, 1972. Pp. 151. Reviewed by Jacqueline Simpson.

GHOSTS AND LEGENDS. By ROY CHRISTIAN. David and Charles, 1972. Pp. 156. Illus. Price: £1.95. Reviewed by Jacqueline Simpson.

WITCHCRAFT IN THE MIDDLE AGES. By JEFFREY BURTON RUSSELL. Cornell University Press, 1972. Pp. 394. £7.15. Reviewed by Richard Cavendish.

VOLKSKUNDE FAKTEN UND ANALYSEN. Festgabe für Leopold Schmidt zum 60. Geburtstag. Ed. by K. BEITL. Vienna (Verein für Volkskunde) 1972. Pp. 524. Plates 77. Text illus. 39. Maps 10. Reviewed by Ellen Ettlinger.     

张家山汉简《具律》的流变及“斩右趾”罪的弃市问题——读江陵张家山《二年律令·具律》札记

江陵张家山247号墓出土《二年律令》竹简中《具律》的发现对厘清失传已久的《具律》流变极有帮助。尤其是《具律》的筒明确记载了汉初肉刑的刑等及科罚,解决了帝时期废“斩右趾”肉刑为死刑的问题。     

The Evolution of American Farm Silos

The conspicuous silo on American farmsteads is the result of an evolving process to store ensilage effectively. From merely indoor stone-lined pits in the ground and exterior wooden rectangular and circular silos of the past, today's silos include the highly mechanical fiberglass and metal (Harvestore) structures. Ensilage has become an important aspect of agriculture, especially in the northeastern quarter of the United States and adjacent parts of Canada. The silo reflects the ongoing changes in agricultural production and in the American farmstead.     

Towards a Theory of Cultural Evolution

Abstract

Previous experience in the development of the mathematical theory of biological evolution, has helped the authors toward their theory of cultural evolution. In this review a constant comparison between the two evolutions, in both directions, has led to an interdisciplinary understanding. Cultural transmission is discussed in detail and the ten major modes of transmission are enunciated; cultural traits are defined and the variance within, as well as between, groups considered. Cultural and environmental selection as well as complex transmission are further aspects leading the authors to the conclusion, that in spite of gross oversimplification, their theory is essential for a rigorous qualitative investigation of cultural evolution.     

现代英国保守主义的嬗变

作为一种意识形态,保守主义诞生于柏克对法国大革命的反思。自19世纪初以来,英国保守党在思想和政策上发生了几次重大的转变。皮尔为保守党确立了基本原则,狄斯雷利则推行托利民主,为现代保守主义增添了新的内容。二战后的新形势使保守党左翼进一步加大了国家对社会经济生活的干预,而撒切尔主义则回到狄斯雷利以前的保守主义。保守党在意识形态上的这种灵活性是其能够一直延续至今的一个重要原因。     

巫的原始及流变

如今在一般人的心目中,巫就是那些装神弄鬼、骗人钱财的家伙,其活动纯属迷信,该当在清除之列。对这些家伙,人们俗称为“巫婆神汉”,口气中饱含着嘲讽。这样认识巫,大致不差,但需要指出的是,今天的巫只是巫的末流,在上古之时,巫可不是这么一副落魄相,借用阿Ｑ的...