Laboratory evidence of the use of metal tools at Machu Picchu (Peru) and environs

An interpretation of use-wear marks on metal artifacts is developed from the principles of metal cutting and brittle fracture and applied to surficial markings and microstructural damage on bronze tools from Machu Picchu and environs. Most of the tools have blunt edges, relatively low tin contents, and were not work hardened before use; they appear to have been designed for work that involved breaking chips from hard, brittle material. Use-wear marks on these tools are interpreted as due to sliding contacts and impacts with rock. One tool with a relatively sharp edge has a higher alloy content than those with blunt edges and has been work hardened; it appears to have been designed for cutting wood and use-wear markings suggest it was so used. A long bronze bar carries markings that suggest use by stonemasons. Many of the tools are broken and study of their microstructures shows that the bronze used has poor mechanical properties because of porosity and bands of sulphide inclusions.     

东周青铜复合剑制作技术研究

东周时期,吴越出现了一种奇特的青铜复合剑,剑的中脊和两刃是用两种不同成分的青铜铸接而成。为充分了解青铜复合剑的制作,对上海博物馆馆藏的4把青铜复合剑残剑进行了分析,通过X-射线荧光能谱仪分析残剑的剑刃和剑脊的成分,金相显微镜分析剑刃和剑脊的组织,发现中国古代工匠采用低锡青铜制作韧性好的剑脊,高锡青铜制作强度和硬度高的剑从,通过榫卯结构以铸接法将剑脊与剑从结合成一体,得到刚柔兼具的青铜复合剑。在测试分析的基础上进行模拟实验,先以陶范铸造法铸造出两侧带榫头的青铜剑脊,剑脊的成分采用88％铜、10％锡、2％铅的低锡青铜;然后将青铜剑脊置入铸造剑从的陶范内,两侧的榫头伸入陶范型腔中,剑从的成分采用78％铜、20％锡、2％铅的高锡青铜,当剑从凝固时产生的收缩使剑脊和剑从牢固地结合成整体,再分1次或多次以铸接法铸上剑格、剑茎、剑箍和剑首,成功地复制了青铜复合剑,再现了东周时期青铜复合剑的制作工艺。     

Interpreting Oral Pathology at Machu Picchu,Peru

This study analyzes oral pathological conditions—caries, antemortem tooth loss, and occlusal macrowear—among adults (N = 70) interred at Machu Picchu, Peru. Previous isotopic diet reconstructions at Machu Picchu suggest substantial early‐life variation that may have narrowed somewhat by the last decade of life. This study seeks to further elucidate the intersection of diet, sex, and health at Machu Picchu by analyzing oral pathological conditions with existing carbon and nitrogen isotopic data. Observed caries prevalence is corrected to control for age and tooth loss, and is described for both anterior and posterior teeth; wear data are scored and reported for individual tooth types. Results indicate caries prevalence consistent with carbohydrate‐rich diets and no significant difference between males and females. However, no significant isotopic parameters are associated with caries prevalence in young adult males, while caries prevalence is significantly associated only with enamel carbonate δ¹³C in older adult males. Dietary protein sources, but not C₄ resources, are associated with caries prevalence in young adult females, and to a lesser degree in older adult females. Significant associations between occlusal wear and caries exist among young adult males and young adult females, but involving different tooth types. These findings suggest differential protein consumption at Machu Picchu between males and females, and separate masticatory and physiological processes shaping caries prevalence between the sexes at the site. This study therefore underscores the role that gender roles may have played in diet variation among this population and the need to account for sex in analyzing oral pathology. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

二龙湖遗址出土铁器的金相学研究

为系统地揭示出二龙湖遗址铁器的金相组织,展示其钢铁技术进步,此次对遗址出土的铁器进行系统的金相学检测和研究,获得了大量的钢铁技术信息。所检测的铁器种类包括铁钁、铁带扣、铁镰、铁刀、铁凿、铁镐、铁剑和铁环钉,均为铸造成型。包括麻口铸铁、白口铸铁、灰口铸铁、铸造后脱碳处理产品韧性铸铁,亦见到有球墨形态存在。在等待考古报告先行发表期间,见有该遗址部分铁器的金相检测及研究论文发表。综合分别进行的检测研究结果,加深了对于战国时期燕国金属工具的性质、东北地区金属文化的内涵以及与中原地区文化及钢铁技术之间渊源关系的认识。     

Association for Field Archaeology Members

Abstract

This article is dedicated to Ronald F. Tylecote

Archaeologists and historians of metallurgy have attempted to explain the gradual abandonment of arsenic bronze in favor of tin bronze in the ancient Old world by making comparisons between the mechanical properties of the two bronzes. These comparisons purport to show the superiority of copper-tin alloys over alloys of copper and arsenic, despite an absence of data on the physical properties of the copper-arsenic system. The study reported here presents the results of mechanical tests carried out on experimental samples of both types of bronze over a broad range of alloy compositions. Hardness, tensile strength, and elongation determinations were made on cold worked and hot worked (forged) material. Whereas tin bronzes can be work hardened more extensively than arsenic bronzes, the far greater ductility of arsenic bronze makes it a desirable alloy for the manufacture of thin metal sheet. The widespread use of low-arsenic copper-arsenic alloys in the Americas, especially in the Andean culture area, is attributable in part to the tradition there of sheet metal production in the elaboration of three-dimensional forms.     

Late horizon silver,copper, and tin from Machu Picchu,Peru

Analyses of silver–copper alloy artifacts from Machu Picchu show silver contents ranging from 24 to 81%. The tin present, ranging up to 3%, originated with the copper, perhaps from admixture of recycled bronze. The presence of 0.4–0.9% lead in the silver-rich phase indicates use of silver prepared by cupellation. All the objects had been forged after casting, some extensively. All have surface enhancement of the silver arising from depletion of the copper-rich phase. Some of the tin found at the site contains inclusions of hardhead (FeSn₂) and of a nickel–arsenic–copper compound. Forming trials with duplicate silver–copper alloys show that intermediate anneals at temperatures between 500 and 600 °C facilitate making thin sheet artifacts. Mechanical tests show that the most commonly used alloys, containing 25–30% silver, are particularly well adapted to forging because of their uniform work hardening during plastic deformation. Annealing of the laboratory-made alloys in air followed by boiling in salty weak acid creates a silver-rich surface layer comparable to that found in the artifacts. Depletion forms a dense silver surface on the alloy containing more silver than the eutectic composition, but a porous surface layer on the 25% silver alloys.     

Managing Change and Master Plans: Machu Picchu Between Conservation and Exploitation

Machu Picchu is among the world’s most controversial heritage sites. It represents a case where raising money through ticket sales and other activities, rather than an opportunity to fund site preservation, in fact constitutes a major threat to the survival of the site through overexploitation. Unesco has been very critical in recent decades about the management of Machu Picchu. International pressure resulted in the establishment of two master plans, in 1998 and in 2005. In this paper we investigate in depth the contents and rhetoric of the two plans, comparing changes in the two different versions, and linking the change in planning attitude to actual changes taking place in the site. This is also an opportunity to open a discussion on the interdisciplinarity of master plans in heritage sites.     

The resurrection of the Inca: the role of Indian representations in the invention of the Peruvian nation

In the nineteenth century, after the separation from the Spanish Crown, the invention of the Andean nations required an autochthonous group, the independence of which could be celebrated. At first sight, it might seem that only the American Indians could play this role, but this idea rapidly ran into a fatal contradiction with the contempt for the Indians of the promoters of the new republics. In addition, it was necessary to build a new identity on many disparate elements to set oneself apart from European origins. In this manner, a suitable mythical autochthony has been invented, built on the image of the Imperial Indian, the descendant of the Incas. The indigenista movement of the 1920s has greatly contributed to the making of this national representation of Peru. This article traces the evolution of this tradition and its principal actors, and describes its underlying tenets. It attempts to picture recent neo‐Inca re‐inventions, especially the emergence of a ritual Inca king in the neo‐cult of the Sun, and the enthronement of the President of the Republic by shamans at the sacred site of Machu Picchu. Finally, it points at recent New Age extensions of this tradition. The article tries to show how mythological constructions of the past are instrumentalized to build the historical foundations of a present‐day nation, and how at the same time they are being taken over by a worldwide ideology.     

Novel Micro‐Scale Steel‐Making from Molten Cast Iron Practised in Medieval Nomadic Communities of East Mongolia

Evidence of novel steel‐making was found in a number of small cast‐iron fragments recovered by the Mongolia–American archaeological survey of eastern Mongolia. These iron artefacts come from medieval period habitation and manufacturing sites and they consistently display irregular surface features characteristic of a solidification reaction from a partially molten state. Their microstructure consists of large near‐spherical islands of pearlite spread on a background of fine white cast‐iron eutectic. Reflected in this peculiar structure is an extremely small‐scale steel‐making process where one or more small pieces of cast iron were heated above the eutectic temperature for rapid decarburization in the partially molten state. We provide a detailed account of the technological aspects of this micro‐scale steel‐making method as observed in the microstructure and chemical composition of the objects examined. This small‐scale technology was ideally suited to the pastoral nomadic way of life that characterized medieval eastern Mongolia; however, it probably would not have been appropriate for sedentary communities with access to large‐scale urban manufacturing centres. Based on this observation, we discuss the role of nomadic lifeways and associated political environments that likely influenced the development of this innovative steel‐making technique.     

汉代铸造铸钱金属范之陶范的分析研究

汉代的铸钱遗址中出土了大量铸造铸钱金属范的阳文陶范,阳文陶范既反映出了铸造金属范时的铸型,又可看出所铸造的铸钱金属范的铸型.为揭示铸钱金属范的铸造工艺及变迁,本工作从铸造工艺角度对阳文陶范进行分析,通过对汉代阳文陶范出土概况的统计,了解了阳文陶范铸型的变迁.以西安相家巷和窝头寨铸钱遗址采集的阳文陶范为基础,对陶范的面层与背层进行了X射线荧光成分分析,在电子探针下对型腔面进行了形貌和成分分析.分析结果表明,阳文陶范分层制作的原因是为了将模上的钱币铭文和形状清晰地复印到陶范上,型腔面的检测不能表明是否使用了表面涂料.     

Valuing visitor benefits at Maehu Picchu

Abstract

This paper shows how the application of economic valuation techniques could assist decisionmakers in managing the unique archaeological site of Machu Picchu in a more efficient way. These techniques demonstrate that the current admission fee is very low compared with the typical tourist's willingness to pay. Raising the admission charge to 40 would not reduce the revenue raised and would, at the same time, reduce maintenance costs and damage to the site caused by high visitor numbers. Site managers should consider practising price discrimination whereby foreign tourists pay a fee substantially higher than that charged to Peruvian nationals.     

宝鸡益门出土金柄铁剑镶嵌宝石的化学与矿物学特性

用扫描电子显微镜（SEM）及所配备的能谱仪（EDS）、X－射线衍射仪（XRD）对出土的三块宝石的化学及矿物学性质进行了分析研究,结果表明,其中两块宝石为金柄剑镶嵌宝石,其化学组成为绿松石,另一块宝石并非来自铁剑镶嵌物,具有正长石和钙长石的衍射谱图特征;绿松石加工制作过程曾使用了青铜工具进行表面打磨处理,说明我国在春秋时期已经开始使用青铜打磨工具。     

南诏大理国金属佛像制作工艺初探

为研究南诏大理国金属佛像的制作工艺,对部分金属佛像进行了科学分析,表明制作各种铜佛像时,主要使用失蜡铸造工艺,已使用多种金属元素作为材质,阿嵯耶观音像和其他铜像是以含砷的铜合金为特征,金质佛像的材质主要用金银合金,铸造小铜佛像则采用复杂的合金成分配比。根据铭文和绘画资料分析,这些金属佛像主要是大理本地的工匠制作。     

铜-铁复合兵器铁刃的分析

对上海博物馆馆藏新品王件春秋早期的铜一铁复合兵器中铁的类型、制成方法、机械性能和材料组织进行了分析,以判明铁刃的原料来源和制作工艺。结果表明：铁刃基体成分为较纯的铁,没有发现镍元素,铁刃组织呈层状分布,结构疏松,合较多夹杂物和孔洞,夹杂物由硅酸盐类复相组成,证实了三件铜一铁复合兵器的铁刃是由人工冶铁锻制而麻     

Collapsing Commodities or Lavish Offerings? Understanding Massive Metalwork Deposition at Langton Matravers,Dorset During the Bronze Age–Iron Age Transition

The discovery of 373 intact and broken tin‐bronze socketed axes accompanied by 404 fragments in four pits at Langton Matravers collectively represents one of the largest hoards found to date in prehistoric Britain and Ireland. They were very probably never meant to be used as axes as the very high levels of tin they contain would have made them brittle. Many were poorly finished, with the majority still containing their casting cores. The axes are typologically dated to the Llyn Fawr metalwork phase (c.800–600 BC) and span the Bronze Age/Iron Age transition, when the production, circulation and deposition of bronze appear to have been substantially reduced throughout north‐west Europe. By placing the Langton Matravers hoard(s) in a broader metallurgical, material and archaeological context, existing theories for this phenomenon, such as the preference for iron, a collapse in bronze supply, or the sharp devaluation of a social or ritual ‘bronze standard’, are evaluated. It is proposed that the Langton Matravers axes belong to a short phase in the centuries‐long processes underlying the changing roles of bronze and iron.     

云南祥云县检村石棺墓出土铜器的初步研究

为研究滇西地区青铜文化及相关铜器的制作技术,本研究采用扫描电镜和金相分析的方法,对云南祥云检村石棺墓出土的17件样品进行取样分析,结果表明祥云检村石棺墓出土的铜器以红铜为主,少数为Cu-Sn合金。这些器物的制作工艺主要是铸造、铸后冷加工等,制作工艺相对单一。3件编钟均为Cu-Sn合金,并且锡成分具有等比递增的现象。兵器矛经过鉴定后说明由于墓主身份的不同,随葬的矛也有实用器和随葬器两类。农具锸和工具锥和凿的鉴定表明有冷加工或使用过的痕迹,可能曾是实用器;而农具锄经鉴定并没有在农作中使用过,仅作为随葬品,进一步证明随葬铜锄是青铜时代滇西地区的一种丧葬习俗。分析表明,当时已根据不同器物的用途进行了不同的制作和加工。本研究结果对研究滇西青铜文化及金属技术有一定的意义。     

汉代平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱工艺的研究

平板范竖式浇铸工艺是我国早期铸钱的基本形式,根据材质的不同,可将平板范分为石范、陶范和金属范.由于与平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱相关遗物出土数量少,该方法不是汉代铸钱工艺中的主要方法,故目前还未对其开展系统的研究.本工作对平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱相关遗物进行了归类分析.表明该工艺不仅在西汉早期一直在使用着,到东汉时期,仍然被用于铸钱.通过模拟实验对汉代的平板陶范竖式浇铸法铸钱工艺进行了研究,其工艺过程为:铸造金属制范模,在模上翻制陶范,陶范经阴干焙烧后铸造钱币.金属制范模的制作,提高了陶范制作的效率,同时也保证了钱币在型腔尺寸和文字上的一致性.     

申明铺遗址出土铁器的工艺考察

申明铺遗址(编号2004.HN.X.A-5)位于河南省南阳市淅川县滔河乡申明铺村北,丹江南岸的河边台地上,遗址出土铁器的器形有釜、鍪、环首刀、剑、铧、锸、削、灯、锛、环、席镇等。年代跨越较大,从战国到清代都有,但以汉代为主。为揭示该遗址铁器制造工艺及相关问题,应用金相显微镜、扫描电镜能谱分析仪(SEM-EDS)等检测手段,对采集于申明铺遗址的铁质农具、兵器、手工工具及生活用具等14件铁器残片进行了金相及扫描电镜能谱分析。结果表明,对硬度、强度、韧性等机械性能要求较高的农具和兵器多采用固体脱碳技术;较大型的炊具,如铁釜、铁鍪等则采用白口铁、麻口铁及灰口铁等铸造工艺。从一个侧面表明,战国至汉代,我国南阳地区的冶铁水平业已十分高超。     

安徽南陵出土部分青铜器研究

安徽省南陵县是长江下游地区最早而且规模最大的冶炼中心之一,其古代矿冶遗址可上溯至西周晚期。本研究对南陵出土的不同年代和类别的青铜器样品进行了金相检测及合金成分定量分析。结果表明,只有容器存在铜铅二元合金和铜锡铅三元合金,但是热锻淬火的容器却不含铅,含锡量恰好位于适合该工艺操作并具有良好性能的区间。兵器、工具、车马饰均为铜锡二元合金,说明当时的工匠对于合金成分配比与性能的关系有明确的认识。越式鼎腹部样品具有热锻淬火马氏体组织,同样的金属结构还见于汉代铜锣等乐器、峡江地区战国中晚期青铜剑、江都大桥镇南朝青铜器窖藏出土的多件青铜容器,而镇江地区出土吴国青铜戈则具有铸造淬火组织,工艺稍有差别。这些器物中发现高锡青铜淬火组织不是偶然的,高锡青铜热锻淬火技术至少可以上溯至春秋战国时期,用以改善高锡青铜的机械性能。     

重庆万州大坪墓群出土文物的检测分析

采用自然科学手段,对重庆万州大坪墓群出土的部分青铜器、铁器、玉器样品进行了检测分析。结果显示青铜器样品均为铅锡青铜,铸造成形;铁器样品为亚共晶白口铸铁;玉器的主要矿物成分是透闪石。这一结果对了解大坪墓群的文化内涵和东周时本地居民的金属加工、玉器制作等手工业技术水平有一定意义。