泰平组合、军火贸易与日本陆军的对华政策

泰平组合是20世纪初期中日关系史上经常可见的名词,该组织的出现、发展以及消失,都是以日本陆军的对华政策为动力的。1908年,以日本与德国在华军火市场竞争为背景,泰平组合由陆军催生;1911年辛亥革命之际,以日本陆军对华分裂政策为背景,泰平组合充当了日本对华国策的工具;1917年和1918年以日本陆军的对华武器同盟、军事同盟、援助段祺瑞政策为背景,泰平组合扮演了寺内内阁对华政策纽带的角色。泰平组合在20世纪初期日本对华军火贸易的活动中,是日本陆军对华政策的具体执行者。     

蒋介石与1935年中日苏关系的转折

1935年初国民政府的对日对苏政策具有多重性质.对处于复杂的互动作用中的中日苏三角关系及蒋介石的战略作出片面的理解,是日本发动华北事变的重大原因.蒋介石在对事变的因应中曾从正反两个方面运用苏联因素,并尝试以"共同防苏"换取日本对华政策的改善.但日本对之提出了中方难以接受的前提,最终迫使蒋介石及国民政府在大政方针上转向对苏不惜联合与对日不惧应战.导致这一转折的决定性的外因,是日苏两国在中国的主权问题与政权问题上的不同姿态.     

克林顿总统时期美国对华政策形成的特点--以总统、国会在对华贸易最惠国待遇问题上的争论为例

通过对克林顿时期总统与国会围绕是否给予中国贸易最惠国待遇问题的争论的历史考察,可以发现在这一时期美国对华政策形成具有如下特点第一,从行政与立法机构之间关系的角度来看,关键时刻总统和国会两院在事关国家利益的重大问题上最终总能达成共识;第二,从行政和国会与两党之间及两党相互之间关系的角度来看,对经济问题的考虑是它们的共同点,也是美国对华政策的重点,美国对华政策中的政治利益往往通过经济手段来实现;第三,从政策实现的途径来分析,总统靠游说国会和呼吁公众支持来实现自己的政策,国会则靠立法来体现其主张,而且国会在大多时候采取主动出击的方式,而总统则在多数时候保持反应式的决策模式。     

中日友好贸易始末

新中国成立初期,由于中日两国尚未建立外交关系,两国贸易只能以民间形式进行.1955年中日第三次民间贸易协定签订后,两国贸易往来渐趋频繁,至1957年,双边贸易额已达11400万美元.但日本岸信介政府上台后,对中国奉行"政治上敌视,经济上捞一把"的错误政策,致使双方关于第四次民间贸易协定的谈判出现了波折.特别是1958年5月,日本政府在长崎纵容暴徒侮辱中国国旗,引起中国人民的极大愤慨,中国政府被迫宣布中断对日贸易.进入60年代,随着国内外形势的变化,特别是日本池田内阁对华政策的调整,周恩来总理不失时机地提出了中日贸易三原则(即政府协定、民间合同、个别照顾),打开了中日贸易的僵局.友好贸易就是在该原则指导下最直接的成果.所谓"友好贸易",是指所有愿意发展对华贸易的日本商社必须对新中国持友好态度,只有经过有关部门认定的日本友好商社才能同中国外贸部门开展贸易往来.     

论日本国民意识演变对日本外交的影响

中日邦交正常化三十多年来,中日关系经历了许多波动和曲折,其原因既有国际政治环境的因素,又有中日双方在实际交往过程中的政策和措施上的问题。而在各种因素当中,日本的社会思想意识,特别是对华认识的变化应该说是最根本的影响和制约因素。本文仅以冷战后日本社会思想意识的变化与对外政策,特别是对华政策的相互关系为考察对象,从国际政治环境、社会体制、舆论的变化进行考察,并进而分析今后日本对华政策的变化趋势。     

西安事变与日本的对华政策

日本在1936年8月全面确立以分裂华北为中心的对华政策,随后即初步付诸实施.西安事变的爆发打乱了其侵华步骤,也使得"一致抗日"成为当时中国最具国内号召力和国际影响力的目标.事变期间,日本最初采取"沿续并促进"的方针,企图趁机继续实施以往的对华政策;在明确情况后,被迫采取静观待变的态度,却又坚决干预中国的"容共"问题.事变的迅速和平解决,最终打破了日本的阴谋.事变后,中国团结抗战局面的形成,迫使日本统治集团重新认识中国,日本政局也出现大动荡.林内阁期间,主要以"佐藤外交"修改以往的对华策略,但并未根本放弃既定的对华政策."佐藤外交"夭折后,近卫内阁又回归于广田内阁时期的对华政策,最终在"七·七"事变后走向全面侵华之路.     

试论布什政府对华政策的调整

美国布什政府对华政策的调整是冷战结束期间美国对外战略调整的一个重要方面.布什当政的四年是美国政府对华政策调整的四年,这一调整过程大致经历了四个阶段.在调整中布什政府对华政策的演变呈现出六大特点一是过程前起后伏;二是目标为演变和遏制中国;三是出发点着眼于长期性和全面性;四是政策的矛盾性;五是突出了人权政策;六是表现出政治问题经济化和经济问题政治化.导致布什政府调整对华政策的直接原因是“六·四”风波,但是,冷战的结束及因此而造成的美国战略利益的转变,才是布什政府改变对华政策的根本动因.     

肯尼迪政府的"限蒋出笼"政策(1961～1963)

20世纪60年代肯尼迪上台后,一改此前美国的"放蒋出笼"政策,反对蒋介石的"反攻大陆"要求.肯尼迪政府阻拦蒋介石"反攻大陆"是因应当时美国对华政策的需要,国际局势的发展已使美国政府认识到,新中国政权是稳固的,无法以外力推翻.在策划"限蒋出笼"政策的过程中,肯尼迪政府就如何应付蒋介石的对策问题曾进行过激烈的辩论,从最初的模糊政策到最后向蒋介石摊牌,政策的出台经历了一个复杂的决策过程.     

从富布赖特听证会看美国精英舆论如何作用于中美关系的“破冰”

精英舆论主要是指新闻报刊、专家学者以及有关的压力集团,同时也包括在国会反映出来的意见。其形成的方式主要有刊行出版物、召开讨论会、与媒体建立联系以及做国会的工作。因此,对上,能对政府的决策提供政策方案,甚至是探求和形成一种新的政策思想;对下,能够广泛的影响公众的判断和认知,形成公众舆论,反过来又对政府决策造成压力。富布赖特听证会作为自1949年中华人民共和国成立后美国政府为中美关系的走向举行的第一次听证会,意义深远。因此,本文将以富布赖特在1966年3月8日至1966年3月30日主持的对华政策听证会为切入口,从其背景、内容、反响和意义出发,来看美国精英舆论如何作用于中美关系的"破冰"。     

朝鲜战争与美国对华遏制政策的确立

朝鲜战争爆发前,美国对华政策尚有一定的灵活性,其对华政策是在选择敌视与非敌视之间徘徊,因而不属于遏制范畴。朝鲜战争爆发及中国出兵朝鲜并打败侵朝美军,导致美重新评估中苏关系性质及中国的实力,美开始视中国为其在远东的主要敌手,选择了对华遏制政策。美国对华遏制政策的确立约在1950年12月初至1951年1月中,主要通过这一时期美国要员的一系列谈话、备忘录、电讯、政策决议等得到体现。     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

Hospital Drama: Visual Theatres of the Medical Rendezvous from Asylum to Hospital with Reference to Specific Works by Anna Furse

Abstract

This paper is informed by Furse’s practice as a theatre maker in two fields of output that are connected by two factors: first, the presence of the woman patient — hysteric/subfertile respectively — within the clinical gaze; second, the significance of the womb to each pathology. In the treatment of each (explored in Furse’s theatre), lens based technologies play their part, whilst the cultural and medical can be seen to have overlapped to produce specific meaning with regard to Her body and its spectacularity. The article presents an overview of some of the key issues in precisely how the woman’s body becomes spectacular within this prosthetic medical gaze and how the medical — and theatrically designed spaces to represent these — become meaningful and potent proxemics that in turn inform medical/ theatrical spectatorship. Overarching nineteenth-century protocols at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris (where Furse’s Augustine (Big Hysteria) is set) to contemporary imaging technologies used in the treatment of subfertility with Assisted Reproduction Technologies (the topic of her Art of A.R.T. projects), it examines the way in which photography develops through cinema to X-Ray, ultrasound and then 3D/4D ultrasound to ‘capture’ the woman’s body in ways by which she becomes muted and exposed. These occular technologies that extend the gaze, first to an exterior subject and then, eventually, traversing the flesh without knife, lend specific performativity to the ‘patient’ women, within the context of hysterias and reproductive impairments respectively. Finally, issues of suspension of disbelief are addressed. The spectator’s faith in the screen-based image of Her spectacular body is interrupted in Furse’s work, which is also keenly interested in the effect of such imagery on the woman’s sense of Self. The historical and cultural leaps in this article argue that there is indeed a trajectory through the history of medical imaging since the first application of photography to anatomy to the more advanced scoping technologies of medical imaging today, and that in each era, the production of these images remain fraught with cultural implications.     

The Death of Alexander the Great – A Spinal Twist of Fate

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. Physical depictions of this historical figure reveal the likelihood of a cervical scoliotic deformity. This is substantiated with the medical history and is correlated with his untimely death. For the first time, it is concluded that Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome.