A 19th century post‐mortem specimen from Deal,Kent

A disarticulated cranium from a builder's trench displayed clear evidence for surgical removal of the cranial vault. Documentary evidence indicates that the post‐mortem was undertaken between 1812–1869 and the patient was probably a British serviceman. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Molecular identification and characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in ancient Egyptian mummies

A considerable number of molecular studies have provided evidence for the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTB) DNA in ancient skeletal and mummified material. Moreover first studies on the differentiation of sub‐types of the MTB (M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. africanum, M. microti, M. canettii) have successfully been performed on ancient tissue samples. In our present study we extend previous analyses and investigate bone and soft tissue samples from 118 ancient Egyptian mummies and skeletons from the Pre‐ to Early Dynastic site of Abydos and different tomb complexes in Thebes West, which were built and used between the Middle and New Kingdom until the Late Period (c. 2050–500 BC). The samples were tested for the presence of MTB DNA and further identified by spoligotyping. Twenty‐six samples provided molecular evidence for the presence of ancient mycobacterial DNA by amplification of a 123 base pair fragment of the repetitive element IS6110. Out of the 26 positive samples, 12 provided a complete spoligotyping signature, which was compared to an international database. Ten further cases showed an incomplete, patchy hybridization pattern, while in four cases no spoligotyping signature could be obtained. Interestingly, they all show either a M. tuberculosis or M. africanum pattern, but none revealed a M. bovis specific pattern. In the material from a Middle Kingdom tomb (used exclusively between c. 2050–1650 BC) several samples revealed a M. africanum type specific spoligotyping signature, while samples from later periods provided patterns typical for M. tuberculosis. This study clearly shows that spoligotyping can be used for the characterization of members of the MTB in historic tissue samples. In addition, our results do not support the theory that M. tuberculosis originated from the M. bovis type. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Wavelength‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence analysis of ancient glasses*

The application of X‐ray fluorescence to the study of the composition of ancient glasses has been limited by the large amount of material required for samples. In this paper the setting of a reduced sampling XRF method for the analysis of ancient glasses is described. The method involves the preparation of glass beads by melting the sample with lithium tetraborate flux. By means of reference and synthetic samples, the method allows regression curves to be set, covering broad ranges from ppm to high concentrations. By means of a single program, up to 31 elements of interest in the study of ancient glass are analysed. The reproducibility, sensitivity and reliability of the method are discussed. The results demonstrate that 0.2 g of glass is sufficient to obtain accurate and sensitive analyses for most of the elements of interest.     

Non‐Destructive Investigation of a Scalenohedral Hematite Pendant from Bahrain,c.1800 bc

A scalenohedral hematite pendant (presumably a pseudomorph after a calcite crystal), excavated on Bahrain (ancient Dilmun) in the Persian Gulf from layers dated to c.1800 bc , was investigated using X‐ray computed microtomography. The internal porosity was studied in 3D, showing a preferential concentration of small pores in the central part, where carbonate remnants might still be present, and larger, flattened, elongated voids in the subsurface portion. Part of the scalenohedron can be described as an intergrowth of platy hematite crystals. Microtomography also yielded data on pore‐size distribution. Considerations are given to the genetic model and the provenance of the hematite pendant.     

Recycled Blessings: An Investigative Case Study of a Rewrapped Egyptian Votive Mummy Using Novel and Established 3D Imaging Techniques

This case study was the first of its kind, where neutron computed tomography (CT) was applied to a wrapped mummified animal. Conventional X‐ray CT was also used to allow for meaningful comparison, and complementary data for a comprehensive investigation. Previous applications of both techniques are limited to metallic objects, such as bronze Buddhas. The mummy used in this study (IA.2402) is dated between the Third Intermediate Period (1069–664 bce ) to Late Period (664–332 bce ) according to the wrapping style, and was originally believed to contain a complete skeleton of a feline. However, precise date and provenance were unknown. Our results prove the presence of only partial juvenile feline remains, and provide a date range for artefact creation (900–804 bce ± 30) and alteration (367–204 bce ± 30). Therefore, this study implements an established imaging technique (neutron CT) in a novel way, while preserving and conserving the intrinsic value of the artefact through non‐destructive investigation.     

Investigation of Organic Materials From the ‘Royal’ Burials of Xiongnu (Noin‐Ula,Mongolia) by Srxrf and XAFS Methods

The burials of famous Xiongnu people are a unique source of information about Xiongnu culture, due to the variety of organic findings. SRXRF analysis of hair, clay, bones, teeth and woollen cloth was carried out. An anomalously high copper content was observed in all hair samples, whereas the levels of copper in bone and clay were low. To define the hair morphology and the elemental distribution in the hair cross‐section, high‐resolution X‐ray computed tomography (HRXCT) and energy‐dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used. The X‐ray absorption fine‐structure method (XAFS) was applied to determine the local copper environment. The majority of the copper species in the hair and enamel samples are present as Cu²⁺ cations in a distorted octahedral (4 + 2) coordination, surrounded by light ligands (oxygen/nitrogen). A similar distorted octahedral coordination is typical for both inorganic mixed oxide/hydroxide Cu nanosystems and metal–organic Cu complexes (with oxygen/nitrogen).     

Handheld Portable X‐Ray Fluorescence of Aegean Obsidians

We tested two portable XRF instruments (with different technologies) using two correction schemes (‘soils’ and ‘mining’) with both factory‐set calibrations and linear regression calibrations derived from published data. All four Aegean obsidian sources, including Sta Nychia and Dhemenegaki on Melos, were distinguished in each case. The newer instrument provided better ‘off‐the‐shelf’ accuracy than the older instrument, but calibrations negated these differences. The newer model also offered superior precision for most elements, despite measuring specimens for shorter times. Both correction schemes for the newer instrument resulted in almost equal precision, meaning that either may be used for successful Aegean obsidian sourcing.     

Studying the process of enamel powder preparation for émail champlevé by colour measurements and μ‐X‐ray mappings

Colour measurements and non‐destructive μ‐X‐ray mappings have been used for the first time in a comprehensive study of medieval émail champlevé works from different production areas in France and Germany. This approach has given a new insight into the enamel powder preparation process of the glass material used for enamelling. Colour measurements demonstrated that all production centres used glass of very similar hues, but with large differences in colour saturation. The μ‐X‐ray mapping results of blue enamels are described by a semi‐qualitative approach. Significant variations in oxide contents of lead, cobalt, manganese and antimony oxides were found. The variations suggest that more than one glass material was used to prepare the powder for enamelling. The variations in antimony and cobalt show that glass had different degrees of opacity and colour depth. The manganese and lead contents, which do not correlate with the cobalt or antimony contents, indicate that probably glass of different base compositions was used to prepare the enamel powder for one champlevé field.     

Beyond the Visible: Combined Neutron and X‐ray Imaging of an Altar Stone from the Former Augustinian Church in Fribourg,Switzerland

An altar table from the former Augustinian church in Fribourg (Switzerland) was studied by means of neutron and X‐ray imaging to investigate the embedded reliquary. The neutron transmission images showed that the sepulcrum contained three objects showing high contrast and high attenuation. As the particles were almost invisible in the X‐ray image, it was assumed that they were organic material. Comparative measurements on reference samples of materials possibly contained in such a reliquary (bone, teeth, leather, incense and parchment) suggest that the particles are bone fragments. Besides an assessment of the content, the results from the neutron investigation allowed a proposal of the probable geometry (i.e., shape and dimensions) of the sepulcrum.     

The Persistence of the Black Colour in Magnetite‐Based Pigments in Prehispanic Ceramics of the Argentine North‐West

The persistence of the black colour in magnetite‐containing paints in polychrome ceramics of the Argentine North‐West processed under conditions considered as oxidant has generated questions about ancient production technologies. In this work, the thermal oxidation reaction of magnetite to hematite under different temperatures, atmospheres and physicochemical characteristics of the materials is experimentally evaluated. The causes of this behaviour are elucidated, and it is concluded that in the archaeological context, a double‐firing process was not necessary to achieve the coexistence of different colours.     

Human remains from a post‐Hellenistic grave‐chamber in Dibba al‐Hisn (Sharjah,UAE)

Human skeletal remains of sixteen individuals found at Dibba al‐Hisn in the Emirate of Sharjah (UAE) are analysed with regard to standard anthropological criteria. They represent the poorly known pre‐Islamic period of the first centuries AD. Remains of at least fifteen individuals were recovered from a semi‐subterranean grave‐chamber together with rich archaeological grave‐goods. An additional, almost complete skeleton was found in the open area near the chamber. While the size and nature of the sample prevent demographic analyses, skeletal features studied with the help of macro‐ and microscopic as well as radiographic methods provide details on individual life histories and living conditions, as well as mortuary habits and taphonomic processes. Of special interest is a case of intentional tooth mutilation as well as two cases of skull trauma apparently caused by violent inter‐personal conflict. The results of the analysis of the faunal remains from the grave‐chamber and its surroundings are presented in an appendix .     

A 16th‐Century Ship‐Find from Amager Beach Park,Denmark: description and preliminary interpretation

When establishing the new Amager Beach Park near Copenhagen, Denmark, a small clinker‐built ship dating to the 16th century (dendro‐dated to 1560–70) was discovered. The Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde excavated the wreck in 2004, and parts of the ship were later taken to the museum and recorded in 3D. This article describes the excavation and the documentation, and presents the preliminary interpretation of the ship‐find. The ship is interpreted as a small cargo vessel, probably carrying two masts. Its hull‐form indicates that the vessel was specially designed for navigating the waters of the Sound between Denmark and Sweden. © 2010 The Author     

Roman military copper‐alloy artefacts from Israel: questions of organization and ethnicity*

The published analyses of Roman military copper‐alloy metalwork from Masada are complimented by additional ICP‐AES analyses of material from Gamla enabling further discussion of alloying trends and presenting new insights into the organization of the Roman military and the cultural specificity of brass technology.     

Schmorl's nodes in a post‐medieval skeletal sample from Klostermarienberg,Austria

The prevalence and distribution pattern of Schmorl's nodes (SNs) were studied in a post‐medieval skeletal sample (n = 473) from the 16^th–18^th century cemetery of Klostermarienberg, Austria. The reasons for the prevalence and distribution pattern of SNs in this sample are discussed with regard to their aetiology. SNs were correlated with age and sex as well as with degenerative spinal joint disease such as vertebral osteophytosis (VO) and apophyseal osteoarthritis (OA). SNs were most commonly found in the lower thoracic region, in agreement with other studies. Males were more affected than females by SNs, especially in the lower thoracic region. SNs show a completely different distribution pattern to VO and OA. Additionally, there was no relationship found between SNs and ageing. Observed differences in the prevalence of SNs in the vertebral column and between the sexes suggest that mechanical factors may be responsible. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reaching across: institutional barriers to cross‐ethnic parties in post‐conflict societies and the case of Northern Ireland

This paper investigates the paradox in post‐conflict societies of continued marginality of cross‐ethnic parties despite significant convergence in public attitudes and identities. In so doing, it examines the argument that parties that attempt to reach across the divide are constrained by consocational institutions designed to accommodate rival identities in such environments. The paper explores this puzzle in the context of Northern Ireland, drawing upon qualitative evidence from elite interviews and focus groups collected in 2012 and 2013. It concludes that cross‐community parties operating in the region do encounter formal institutional barriers, but that such barriers only partially explain the phenomenon and an interplay between formal and informal constraints underlies their position of relatively limited electoral success.     

Cultural legacies and electoral performance of ethnic minority parties in post‐communist Europe

Although there are numerous contributions on ethnic electoral politics, relatively little research has been devoted to explain the scope of success of ethnic minority parties. This article addresses the issue within the bounds of post‐communist Europe, paying particular attention to the effect of cultural legacies. It was confirmed, first of all, that ethnic parties are likely to emerge only if their titular minority has a number of voters larger than what is necessary to obtain parliamentary representation. Otherwise, the most successful were the ethnic parties representing the minorities characterised by legacy of regional domination, that is, those whose members had once enjoyed a dominant position as a ruling nation on a given territory (e.g. Hungarians in Slovakia). The second‐successful were the parties representing homeland minorities, that is, those which have resided on a given area for more than two centuries, but have never been members of a ruling nation. The parties representing diaspora or immigrant minorities were the least successful. Further research could assess the importance of these factors in other regions of the world.     

The Copper CHARM Set: A New Set of Certified Reference Materials for the Standardization of Quantitative X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Heritage Copper Alloys*

This paper introduces a new set of certified reference materials designed to aid scientists and conservators working in cultural heritage fields with quantitative X‐ray fluorescence analysis of historical and prehistoric copper alloys. This set has been designated as the Copper CHARM Set (Cultural Heritage Alloy Reference Material Set). The Copper CHARM Set is designed to be used by a wide range of museum‐, art‐ and archaeology‐oriented scientists and conservators to help improve the accuracy and range of their calibrations for quantitative ED–XRF spectrometry of copper alloys, and also increase the number of elements that can routinely be quantified. In addition, the common use of a single core set of the reference materials is designed to significantly improve inter‐laboratory reproducibility, allowing greater data sharing between researchers and thus furthering possibilities for collaborative study.     

Physico‐Chemical Characterization of Pigments and Binders of Murals in a Church in Ethiopia

Here, we report the physico‐chemical characterization of wall paintings from the Petros and Paulos church in Ethiopia. This work represents the first technical study of paintings located in Ethiopia, rather than paintings in museum collections outside the country, using diverse analytical techniques. In situ examination with a portable X‐ray fluorescence spectrometer (pXRF) was followed by analysis of samples using optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS), micro‐Raman spectroscopy (MRS), attenuated total reflection – Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR‐FT–IR), X‐ray powder diffraction (XRD) and pyrolysis gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (Py‐GC/MS). The paint stratigraphy, the compositions of the support material, the preparatory and painting layers were studied, as well as the morphology of the pigment particles. The results revealed the use of earth pigments and carbon black. The preparatory layer was uncommon; composed of dolomite, clay rich in clinochlore and sand, in contrast to the more common gypsum and calcite. The binder and the stratigraphic analyses suggested a distempera technique.     

Coloured Prints of the 16th Century: Non‐Destructive Analyses on Coloured Engravings from Albrecht DÜrer and Contemporary Artists

Qualitative investigations of pigments and dyes using micro X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry (micro‐XRF) and visible spectrophotometry (VIS) are suitable non‐destructive methods for the characterization of different colorants in art objects. In this study, several rare coloured engravings from the work of Albrecht Dürer—and, in addition, from the work of Cornelis Cort, Servatius Raeven and Johannes Sadeler—were investigated. The analyses result in specific palettes of colours that were used by different artists or in different workshops for the coloration of engraved images. Starting from these different palettes, it is possible to distinguish coeval colorations that were added in the 16th century from those that were carried out at a later date (e.g., the 19th century).     

The ethno‐religious ambitions of the Roman Catholic Church and the ascendancy of communism in post‐war Poland (1945–50)

ABSTRACT. This paper differentiates between centrifugal and centripetal aspects of ethno‐nationalism to help account for the ascendancy of communism in the immediate aftermath of World War II in Poland. It argues that the directing of social antipathy to defined out‐groups allowed the Polish Workers' Party (PPR) to manage social anger and that the Roman Catholic Church's ethno‐religious agenda was aligned with the PPR's ethno‐nationalist policy. Furthermore, it is contended that the Church's toleration of hostile actions directed at minority communities supported the PPR's management of social anger. The paper concludes that the Church, despite its manifest intentions and contrary to contemporary perceptions, played a role in the PPR's achievement of hegemony.