从幕府到职官:清季外官制改革中的幕职分科治事

清代原直省总督、巡抚衙门不置属官,司道衙署职官数量甚少,幕府成为事实上的体制外机构。咸同以后,随社会变化与政务增多,文案处与科房数量增加,众多局处所的不断衍生与扩充,分别从督抚衙门内外伸展行政权力,影响中央财政,原有体制弊端更为突出。清季新政的外官制改革,以借用唐宋幕职为形式,通过分科治事体现了近代科层制精神,将体制内外机构整合改造,使幕友成为职官,并设会议厅议政决策,其建置反映了清季内外官制改革的成果,在行省机构从传统官制向近代行政体制过渡中迈出了关键的一步。     

种瓜得豆：清季外官改制的舆论及方案选择

清季官制改革启动前,程序和步骤均有不同方案,选择结果对改革进程不无影响。当朝执政未能统筹全局,却照搬外国经验,从而内外官改制难以协调,督抚的双重身份又成为官制改革的症结及矛盾焦点。因改制权力频受削弱的督抚,设法图存扩张,先是多方表达自己的不满和诉求,继而利用立宪派和民众的请愿,公开向清廷施加压力。直至辛亥前夕,外官改制的最终方案仍未确定,由此引发的权与利的争斗,加速了清王朝垮台。所遗留的省级行政权力及其长官身份地位问题,成为民初割据纷争要因,且依然困扰着后来行政体制的规划者与建设者。     

独断与合议:清末直省会议厅的设置及运作

清末直省会议厅的设置,标志着行省政务决策模式由督抚独断和幕友私人参谋向近代行政合议制的转换。光宣之际各省会议厅设置后,起初不仅在官僚体系内部即官的层面开放决策权,有限度地公开决策过程,而且将决策权部分向士绅开放,一度形成上下内外合议的决策模式。但是,在集思广益与权力掌控之间,经过前后反复,当局试图通过制度调整重建符合自己利益的行政秩序,且取其形而异其质。经过三个阶段的调整,会议厅合议的功能逐渐因督抚独断的强化而削弱。清末新政官制改革所反映出来的中西行政概念差异,以及围绕会议厅规则的几番变异,展示出近代政治制度变革进程的艰难与曲折。     

“停部选”与清末州县官选任制度改革

晚清以来,随着督抚权力的扩大,原有的部选与外补并存的州县官选官结构受到冲击。新政开始后,清廷不得不停止部选,将州县官的选任权交给督抚。但由于停部选涉及吏部与督抚的权力,带来二者的利益冲突,从而使这一改革表现出新制与旧制纠葛的面貌,没有从根本上解决仕途壅滞的问题。"停部选"实际只是一个从"部选与外补并存"向"全归外补"过渡的过程,并没有完成。     

再论“内外皆轻”权力格局与清末民初政治走向

辛亥鼎革之际,清朝中央与地方权力关系已演变为"内外皆轻"的权力格局,是清末新政时期清廷中央集权对地方督抚收权的结果。关于"权力流向"问题,在清末民初从君主专制走向民主共和的制度变迁与重建的过程中,清政府的统治权力经由南京临时政府与南京临时参议院,最终转移到袁世凯北洋集团。清末"内外皆轻"权力格局对民初政治走向的重要影响,是辛亥革命在清廷中央与地方督抚权威一并衰落之际爆发,以袁世凯为首的北洋集团乘势而动,从军人干政到军人主政,试图重建统治权威而未能奏效,政局分崩离析,导致民国初年的军阀政治。民初军阀不是清末地方督抚势力自然增长的延伸,而是掌握军队尤其是新军的新生势力的崛起。     

晚清地方督抚权力问题再研究——兼论清末“内外皆轻”权力格局的形成

关于晚清中央与地方关系的权力格局,学界长期以来多信奉"外重内轻"说。笔者通过对清末新政时期地方督抚权力变化的研究认为,辛亥鼎革之际,中央与地方权力关系实际上已演变为"内外皆轻"的权力格局。在清末庚子至辛亥期间,随着新政尤其是预备立宪的开展,清政府不断加强中央集权措施,地方督抚的权力被收束而日益变小,其干政的影响力也有一个逐渐减弱的趋势。但与此同时,清政府中央集权的实际效力却并不显著,反而随着统治集团内部矛盾的激化而有削弱之势。这样,便形成"内外皆轻"的权力格局。一方面,清廷并没有建立强有力的中央政府,也未能真正控制全国的军权与财权,中央集权有名无实;另一方面,各省督抚也不能有效地控制地方军权与财权,在地方已没有强势督抚,更没有形成强大的地方势力。武昌起义前夕,正是地方督抚权力明显削弱,而清廷中央集权尚未强固之时,在此权力转换临界的关键时刻,革命爆发,无疑是对清王朝的致命一击。     

辛亥鼎革之际地方督抚的出处抉择——兼论清末“内外皆轻”权力格局的影响

从群体结构看,武昌起义时在职的地方督抚仍然是一个旧式的官僚群体;武昌起义后新任的地方督抚群体则注入了新的因素,同时也暗伏了新的变数。各省督抚在武昌起义后的反应,可谓情形不一。那种认为督抚大都奔逃自保而少有效忠清廷者的说法,未免有简单片面化之嫌。其实,真正转向革命阵营或死命对抗革命的督抚只是极少数。大多数督抚还是存效忠清廷之心,虽然因无法控制新军及当地绅商不肯合作,而不能有效地镇压革命,但他们并不愿看到清王朝的覆灭,还是采取了不同程度的防范应对措施。这既与其切身利益有关,也与其思想观念状况有关。辛亥鼎革之际,因清末新政过程中清廷不断收束权力,中央与地方权力关系表面上演变为“内重外轻”之格局,但实际上是一种“内外皆轻”的权力格局。其总体表征是中央与地方权威一并流失,中央无法控制地方,地方无力效忠中央。“内外皆轻”权力格局的形成,直接后果是清廷中央与地方均无法有效地应对革命,致使清王朝走向覆亡之路;另一个严重的后果是掌握军队尤其是新军的军人势力的崛起,出现军人干政,导致民国初年的军阀政治。     

清代“烟瘴缺”制度演变考——以两广所属文官为中心的探讨

烟瘴缺是清廷于烟瘴地区设立的特殊官缺。在烟瘴缺选人条件方面,经历了从严格限定到逐渐宽泛的过程。选人方式方面,康熙时地方督抚题补阶段为掣签,雍正以降,改为督抚、两司"会商",其实质为地方督抚对题补缺人事权形成垄断。再者,乾隆初年确立了以保障烟瘴缺官员生命健康为核心的五省籍贯制度,该制为两广部分烟瘴缺所特有,他省未见此制。烟瘴缺俸满升迁方面,由起初列于即升班内,转为部分留于本省升用,说明督抚在烟瘴缺题补中分割吏部对官员任命权的同时,也被迫承担了原本由吏部承担的责任,呈现出权力与责任趋向成正比的态势。乾隆中期以降,烟瘴缺制度未有大的变动,说明其时清廷边疆治理体系已相对成熟稳定。     

唐代中书门下体制下的三省机构与职权——兼论中古国家权力运作方式的转变

开元十一年改政事堂为中书门下 ,标志着唐代政治体制发生了重大转变。中书门下作为宰相裁决政务的机构 ,是最高决策兼行政机关 ,是超然于三省之上的相府。中书门下系由以三省为依托的政事堂改变而来 ,改政事堂为中书门下之后 ,三省依然存在 ,但其机构建制和职权性质都发生了很大变化。从中国古代帝国体制演进过程看 ,中书门下体制的建立及三省机构和职权的变化 ,体现了中古时期国家权力运作方式的重大转变。     

清代学政官制之变化

学政掌一省之学校政令和岁科两试,是管理一省学校教育之官.本文通过对清代学政体制从学道变为学院的过程的考察,指出虽然在法令上看,从雍正四年起才以加衔的方式使学道都成为学院,但在实际上,雍正即位后,从未任命过一位学道.雍正朝将学政由学道改为学院,在体制上完成了一项变革,各省学政之官不再与地方督抚有统属关系,获得独立选拔人才的权力.     

Climate and energy security policies and measures: synergies and conflicts

Concerns about climate and energy security are leading to increased government intervention in the energy sector, in particular as they relate to the choice of energy supply options. While many of these options will improve both energy and climate security, many measures will benefit one while harming the other. This raises an important question for governments and energy planners: how can conflicts between climate and energy security be resolved? This article outlines some of the barriers and problems that may arise as governments and companies try to address climate and energy security concerns simultaneously in various energy supply areas. It concludes by arguing against choosing one objective over the other, and by outlining steps that can be taken to help resolve conflicts between the two agendas.     

我和我的兄弟姐妹

1938年．我出生在金沙江畔一个叫巴塘的小县城里。生在哪一天．至今不知道．因此．六十多年过去了．我从来也没有过过生日。     

Challenger and Chernobyl Lessons and Reflections

Abstract

It is argued that Psychological research on 'race' and 'ethnicity' issues presents a number of ethical problems. These relate to the sociopolitical impact of such research, particularly when it purports to find differences of an 'innate' character; to the use of naive subjects, particularly children, in research which is aimed at demonstrating their 'inferiority'; and, within the academic community itself, to the working relationships between researchers who believe in 'innate' 'race' differences and colleagues belonging to allegedly 'inferior' groups – this being particularly significant within a teaching environment. Although the 'race differences' question has a long and controversial history, ethical issues relating to the research process itself have received less focused attention. Moreover, replacement of the genetically obsolete concept of 'race' with the idea of 'ethnicity' does not solve the problem entirely, and the term 'ethnicity' is itself unsatisfactory in several respects.     

Power and Ethnicity History and Anthropology

This essay reflects on the relationship between anthropological and historical scholarship of ethnicity, picking up on themes explored by Andre Gingrich, by considering the epistemological and evidentiary limitations of social scientific and historical analysis and reconstruction. Beginning with the consideration of the pioneering transdisciplinary efforts of Robert Darnton and Clifford Geertz, it argues that many of the weaknesses ascribed to such efforts are actually part of the nature of social scientific investigation which, in the terms of Peter Winch, must take into account two sets of relationships: that of the relationship between the scientist and the phenomena that he or she observes and the symbolic system that he or she shares with other scientists, which can only be understood from the social context of common activity. How these two relationships challenge social scientific analysis of ethnicity are examined through a consideration of the difficulties of applying Anthony Smith's definition of an ethnie to either Fredrik Barth's classic essay on “Pathan Identity and its Maintenance” or Helmut Reimitz's study of Frankish identity. It concludes that neither anthropologists nor historians are simply describing societies as they are or as they were but rather attempt to describe societies as witnesses within them thought they should be, and we do this for our own society, not for those of the participants, past or present.     

Of Demons and Angels and Historical Humans: Some Events and Questions in Translation and Post-colonial Theory

In what follows, I attempt to show that a look at some curious examples of translations from European texts makes us think about issues in translation theory and post-colonial theory from a slightly different angle. The metaphor of translation can very well be employed for understanding the relation between European texts, and some texts and some social and political practices in India in the colonial period, and this in turn helps us look critically at what I shall call our fuzzy post-colonialism. I also argue that Walter Benjamin's metaphor of translation as the after-life of a work can be extended to posit two basic modes of after-life.     

后伊拉克时代与中国的内政外交--普遍主义与单边主义的冲突

"9·11"事件后,冷战后的国际政治格局发生了重大变化.其最大特征可以概括为以下两点:第一,确立了以唯一超级大国--美国为核心的以反恐为普遍主义的全球性安全阵线;第二,美国的爱国主义、民族主义戏剧性地高涨起来.就像当时有人强调因为全世界有60多个国家的人在世界贸易中心工作,所以对世贸中心的攻击就是对全世界的攻击那样,在美国国民中普遍存在着这样的观点:因为美国社会自身就是世界的缩影,所以星条旗也可被看作是超越一国国界的全人类的普遍象征.