Herds for the Gods? Selection Criteria and Herd Management at the Mass Sacrifice Site of Huanchaquito-Las Llamas During the Chimú Period,Northern Coast of Peru

ABSTRACT

The discovery of the sacrificial remains of 140 children and 206 camelids sacrificed at the site of Huanchaquito-Las Llamas, on the northern coast of Peru, has provided new data on mass sacrifice practices during the Chimú period. The exceptional state of preservation of the camelids, including the presence of coats and hides, opens new research perspectives on the utilisation of animals in ritual contexts. This article will focus on the results of the zooarchaeological analysis, particularly of mortality profiles and coat colour, to address the criteria used to select the sacrificial victims. Young individuals were exclusively selected, and while there is a majority of brown coats, three colours that are present in modern herds are absent at Huanchaquito. This reveals the preferential choice made by the Chimú officiants for this sacrifice. A spatial analysis did not reveal preferences in the organisation of the deposits. The killing of the youngest cohort of the livestock probably had an impact on the whole livestock. This suggests the existence of large herds that were controlled by the Chimú empire. Our results provide additional insights into the management of camelid herds and show the complexity of pastoralism on the pacific coast during pre-Hispanic times.     

Life History and Origin of the Camelids Provisioning a Mass Killing Sacrifice During the Chimú Period: Insight from Stable Isotopes

ABSTRACT

The site of Huanchaquito-Las Llamas, situated in the Moche Valley, Peru, dated to the Late Intermediate Period (AD 1100-1470), represents a single event mass killing of children and domestic camelids of the Chimu society. Reconstruction of the life histories of 82 camelid individuals based on stable isotope analysis of bone collagen indicates that they originated from the lowlands. Isotopic inter-individual variability indicates diversity in dietary sources, consisting of wild plants and cultigens, grown in water-limited and non-water-limited conditions, as well as a large proportion of C₄ plants, suggesting that the animals originated from various herds that were differently managed. In contrast, uniformity in terms of restricted coat colour and young age could suggest that the animals derived from specialised herds. It is possible that the requirement in a short period of time for a massive number of animals meeting certain criteria exceeded the capacity of these herds. This study presents the largest isotopic dataset measured at a single pre-Hispanic site so far and the first to record herding practices for the Chimú society. Comparison with previous isotopic datasets shows differences between ritual and non-ritual groups, as well as diversity in pastoralism practises through time in the Central Andes.     

Gastrointestinal parasites in ancient South American camelid feces from the Atacama Desert (Pampa del Tamarugal,Tarapacá, northern Chile)

Faunal remains from archeological sites worldwide, especially feces and regurgitated pellets, are usually subjected to paleoparasitological examination, allowing the identification of past animal parasites. In this study, we analyzed 10 samples of South American camelid dung, which played an important role for the ancient human groups in the South-Central Andes, dated between 341 and 1635 calCE, from the Iluga Túmulos site (Pampa del Tamarugal, Tarapacá region, Atacama Desert, Chile). Microscopy examination revealed parasite remains in seven samples, in which oocysts of Eimeria macusaniensis and eggs of Lamanema chavezi/Nematodirus lamae, Trichuris sp., Moniezia sp., capillariids, strongylids, and unidentified nematodes were found. Although some of these species pose a potential health risk to camelids, most are not considered to be of major zoonotic importance, which could explain the absence of these parasites on human coprolites from this site analyzed previously. This first paleoparasitological study on camelid fecal remains from northern Chile sheds light on the occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites and its relationship with Andean ancient human populations and the environment.     

Isotopic Evidence for Camelid Husbandry During the Formative Period at the Pacopampa Site,Peru

ABSTRACT

Camelids were domesticated in the Andean highlands, such as in the puna habitat, and dispersed into lowland areas and the northern Central Andes. As camelids domesticated in a particular region would have had a greater economic benefit than visiting- or hunted wild camelids, it is important to reconstruct the dispersal of camelid husbandry from its initial site throughout the ancient Andean civilisation. We carried out multi-isotope analyses of animal remains recovered from the Pacopampa site to investigate the nature of camelid pastoralism and utilisation. Strontium and oxygen isotope ratios from tooth enamel suggested that camelids in the early Late Formative Period (800–500 BC) were born near the site and remained in the same habitat for up to three years. Although corresponding data for the Middle Formative Period (1200–800 BC) were not available, carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios were statistically different from those of the Late Formative Period, supporting the possibility that the camelids inhabited the highland plateau like puna. It is inferred that in the northern highlands camelids were initially rare and regarded as either tribute or ritual animals, or they were used as pack animals. Camelid husbandry using maize as fodder began during the Late Formative Period at Pacopampa.     

Isotopic evidence for Middle Horizon to 16th century camelid herding in the Osmore Valley,Peru

Archaeological and zooarchaeological data indicate that camelid pastoralism was a subsistence and economic mainstay of Middle Horizon and more recent cultures in the Osmore region of southern Peru. However, it is not known whether camelids were primarily herded in highland puna pastures or near lower elevation sites in the middle valley or along the coast. This research examines the elevation of archaeological camelid herding in the Osmore Valley using stable isotope analysis. Stable carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotope ratios were measured on 28 archaeological camelid bone samples from the Middle Horizon sites of Cerro Baúl and Cerro Mejía, the Late Intermediate site of Yaral and the late pre‐Hispanic to Colonial period site of Torata Alta. Twenty‐three archaeological camelids have δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values similar to five modern camelids maintained in highland puna pastures. In contrast, three camelids from the high status Wari site of Cerro Baúl, and two from Yaral have unexpectedly high δ¹³C and/or δ¹⁵N values outside the expected range for camelids pastured in highland puna habitats. The results may be explained by differences in foddering practices, altitudinal herding range or climatic conditions. Strontium isotope ratios (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) were also assessed to infer pasture elevation using the camelid remains from Cerro Baúl (n = 11). One individual in this sub‐sample exhibits a non‐local ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr value indicative of an origin in the highland puna region east or south of Lake Titicaca. It was not possible to further distinguish between camelids herded in lower to middle elevation habitats outside the Lake Titicaca basin using ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values. This study suggests that multiple isotope proxies may be used to identify animals primarily pastured in lowland coastal versus highland puna (> 4000 masl (meters above sea level)) habitats, but are less useful at distinguishing between animals pastured in lower to middle elevation settings. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

First Approach to Study the Presence of Domesticated Camelids (Lama glama) in the Chaco‐Santiago Region,a Marginal Zone of the South Central Andes

We analysed bone remains of camelids from the Maquijata site, assigned to the late pottery‐making and farming stage (ca. 800–400 BP), in order to differentiate between domestic and wild species in the Chaco‐Santiago archaeological region. This region is considered marginal to the Argentine Northwest regarding its cultural development and has received less attention than other regions. South American camelids have been one of the major resources in this continent, with domestication recorded in the South Central Andes at around 4400–3000 BP. We applied osteometric techniques and multivariate statistical analyses to proximal phalanges; the results showed interspecific differentiation of archaeological specimens, though with some methodological application issues. These results are the first contribution regarding the presence of domesticated animals in the study area. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

New Bioarchaeological Evidence and Radiocarbon Dates from the Lambayeque/Sicán Culture Camelids from the El Brujo Complex (Northern Coast of Peru): Implications for Funerary and Herd Management Practices

ABSTRACT

Pastoralism and camelid management have been essential to all aspects of pre-Hispanic Andean societies. Here, we present zooarchaeological and isotopic data on domestic camelid remains from Huaca Cao Viejo (El Brujo archaeological complex) on the northern coast of Peru, and dated to the Lambayeque/Sicán period—to characterise their biological age, diet, life history, possible geographic origin and ritual use. Domestic camelids, representing a wide range of biological ages and a high rate of polydactyly, were found as burial offerings in direct association with human funerary bundles (fardos). Direct AMS dates indicated that camelids were buried over a short period of time (AD 1022–1176) confirming the Lambayeque presence in the Chicama Valley during the first half of the Late Intermediate Period. Stable isotopic analyses were carried out on both bone collagen and hair keratin, including incremental analysis. A considerable variability in δ¹³C values at both the intra-individual and the intra-group level and a large contribution of C₄ resources to diet are shown. This clearly supports local management and camelids originating from various herds. Zooarchaeological and isotopic evidences suggest diversity in herding practices and suggest the importance of the herds in fulfilling the transportation demands for trade in goods.     

Rare animals at a Mississippian chiefly compound: the Irene Mound site (9CH1), Georgia,USA

ABSTRACT

The Irene Mound site (9CH1) was a Middle and Late Mississippian site (ca. AD 1150–1450) situated on a bluff overlooking the lower Savannah River, Georgia (USA), a few kilometers upstream from the Atlantic Ocean. The 2.4 ha site consisted of a sequence of superimposed layers referred to as temple mounds, as well as a burial mound, a rotunda, a few residences, and other structures. It is interpreted as the residence of a chiefly lineage. The presence of animals rare or absent in other precolonial coastal assemblages distinguishes the Irene assemblage from others along the coast. Some of the animals exhibit atypical, even dangerous, behavior, others have elaborate feathers or fine fur, and many are notable coastal fishers. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) specimens in the assemblage are dominated by portions from the body. Irene may provide a zooarchaeological standard for assessing evidence of site functions and status in other coastal assemblages.     

New Data on South American Camelid Bone Size Changes during Middle‐Late Holocene Transition: Osteometry at Peñas Chicas 1.5 (Antofagasta de la Sierra,Argentinian Puna)

Approaching the study of camelid bone size change in the meridional portion of the South Central Andes is a significant subject especially when the assemblages are associated to radiocarbon dates placed at a time of social transition from an extractive to a producer economy. In this sense, this paper presents the results of applying osteometric techniques on a set of 10 elements from the Peñas Chicas 1.5 site dated around 3800 BP . The analysis shows the presence of at least three individuals, one of which corresponds to an Andean guanaco (Lama guanicoe) morphotype. The second and the third are similar in size to a modern llama (Lama glama) in their ‘intermediate’ and ‘cargo’ morphotypes. This is consistent with patterns already seen for sites from the Argentinian and Chilean Puna where the identification of larger individuals than the Andean guanaco modern standard shows the early stages of an increasingly bone size variability of South American camelids. This paper contributes with new data to understand the complex processes that occurred in the South Central Andes that led to the domestication of one of the most conspicuous animals in the archaeological record of the Argentinian Northwest. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Morphometric Analysis of Camelid Remains from the Alero Deodoro Roca (ADR) Site (Córdoba,Argentina). An Attempt to Characterise Body‐Size Variability in Sierras Pampeanas Australes Region

This paper focuses in the morphometric analyses of Lama guanicoe remains recovered from the hunter–gatherer archaeological site Alero Deodoro Roca, located at Sierras Pampeanas Australes region (Córdoba Argentina), an area that has little information on the body‐size variability of these artiodactyls. Because of the sparse osteometric data in the region, we focused on determining inter‐intraspecific differentiation of wild camelids through corroborated osteometric techniques and multivariate statistical analyses of proximal phalanges. Our results showed a clear interspecific differentiation between modern vicuñas and archaeological specimens. We could also distinguish at least three guanaco size groups (small, medium and large) with the archaeological remains from the late Holocene (3000–3600 bp ) of the site, presenting medium‐size characteristics. Finally this paper aims at establishing a first approach in the characterisation of guanaco body size in the mountainous region of Córdoba. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Molecular evidence of changing foodways across the Mississippian transition at the George Reeves site (11S650)

ABSTRACT

The George Reeves site (11S650) is a multicomponent village on the bluffs in the central American Bottom, Illinois. The site was occupied from the Late Woodland Rosewood phase through the Mississippian Lohmann phase. Pottery use and dietary variation between the Late Woodland and Emergent Mississippian occupations at the site were explored through stylistic analysis, pottery residue analysis, and compound-specific carbon isotopic analysis of pottery residues. Although more samples should be analyzed, diet and pottery use at George Reeves seems to have been varied, with maize present by cal AD 900–1000, but comprising a relatively small portion of lipid residues in pottery. Residue analysis indicates a C₄ presence in 5 of 16 sampled pots from the early Emergent Mississippian deriving from either maize or from meat from animals consuming maize. Pottery residues were mixed, showing C₃ and C₄ plants as well as meat and fish or shellfish. One residue showed a high incidence of C₄ contribution, most likely from Portulaca oleracea (common purslane), as well as large amounts of fish or shellfish and another C₃ plant. Residue from a ceramic pipestem indicates that maize may have been smoked, probably in the form of maize silk mixed with other nontobacco plants.     

Assessing Prehispanic Herding Strategies through Stable Isotope Analysis: A Case Study from the Dry Puna of Argentina

ABSTRACT

The main goal of this work is to study the camelid herding and management strategies employed by the human groups that occupied the Dry Puna of Argentina during the late Holocene. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope compositions were measured on bone collagen from domesticated South American camelids (llamas: Lama glama) recovered at two archaeological sites (Huirunpure and Chayal Cave). These results were interpreted using an already published data set of δ ¹³C and δ ¹⁵N values measured on bone collagen from modern herds of llamas managed in a traditional way. Our results showed that even though the archaeological sites of Huirunpure and Chayal Cave are located within different settings – at 4020 and 3700?masl respectively – and present different chronologies – 0–650 and 1300–1500 CE respectively – the llamas from both sites exhibit similar δ ¹³C and δ ¹⁵N values. This pattern was explained considering the characteristics of the vegetation communities that grow in the vicinity of both sites as well as the paleoenvironmental records of the Andean highlands. In sum, this work presents and discusses some preliminary results on the study of prehispanic herding practices in the Dry Puna of Argentina during the first 1500 years of the Common Era through stable isotope analysis.     

Gete Odena: Grand Island’s Post-Contact Occupation at Williams Landing

Abstract

Two seasons of excavation were conducted at Gete Odena, a Terminal WoodlandlHistoric Period site near Williams Landing. We discuss two significant findings from the post-contact period. The first is the discovery of six pits investigated through a performance-based analysis and thought to be used in hide processing. The second significant finding is the identification of the occupation surfaces associated with the late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century component. Our investigation has revealed information about site function, seasonality, and hide-smoking technology during the late prehistoric/early historic Native American occupation of the island.     

MtDNA haplotype identification of aurochs remains originating from the Czech Republic (Central Europe)

Abstract

This study presents the results of the analysis of mtDNA bone samples morphologically determined to be aurochs (Bos primigenius) from four various archaeological finds in the Czech Republic (Central Europe). The results from two of them — the Pleistocene sample from Praha-?eporyje and the Neolithic sample from Vedrovice — probably represent contamination by modern DNA. Sequences identified in the Eneolithic Kutná Hora-Denemark site (～5 thousand BP) confirm the presence of haplogroup P in the geographically partly isolated Czech basin. This finding (the first of its kind within the Czech Republic) is consistent with other published findings showing the domination of this aurochs haplogroup line in Europe. The combination of large individual size and ‘domestic’ mtDNA suggest, if inconclusively, that the Early Medieval fourth sample from Vy?ehrad could potentially represent an aurochs/domestic cattle hybrid.     

Paleopathology and health of native and introduced animals on Southern Peruvian and Bolivian Spanish Colonial sites

Spanish colonial sites in southern Peru and Bolivia contain remains of native camelids and introduced bovids with examples of degenerative paleopathologies that are interpreted as reflecting changes in herd management, animal use and animal health following the Spanish conquest. The archaeological contexts include three Spanish colonial wineries from Moquegua in southern Peru and the nearby colonial village of Torata Alta where indigenous people were forced to resettle under Spanish control. Also from Peru is faunal material from the 14th to 16th century rural agropastoral village of Pillistay located near Camana. Animal remains with bone abnormalities are also present in residential, commercial and industrial sites associated with Spanish silver mining near Potosí, Bolivia at Tarapaya and Cruz Pampa. Eighteen pathological specimens are described including examples of degenerative changes to phalanges, vertebrae, tarsals, limb elements and ribs. Paleopathologies present include exostoses, osteophytes, porosity, grooving and eburnation. Examples of phalangeal exostoses on bovid phalanges indicate the use of these introduced animals as draught cattle. Exostoses on camelid first phalanges suggests their use as cargo animals as do thoracic vertebrae with severe cases of degenerative pathology. Introduced caprines contain few pathologies indicating their primary use as food animals. The bone abnormalities from colonial sites are more severe than those reported for prehispanic faunal assemblages. These data provide insights into the health and work behaviour of indigenous Andean camelids and introduced Eurasian animals following the Spanish conquest. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Melian obsidian in NW Turkey: Evidence for early Neolithic trade

Abstract

Archaeological investigations carried out at the Early Neolithic coastal site of Co?kuntepe in northwestern Turkey yielded an assemblage of 110 obsidian artifacts displaying the macroscopic characteristics of the well-known obsidian deposits on the Cycladic island of Melos. Analysis of three samples from this homogeneous obsidian assemblage using both X-Ray Fluorescence and Laser Ablation High Resolution Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry confirmed that these artifacts were derived from Melos. The presence of these Melian obsidian artifacts at Co?kuntepe, along with a few pieces with central Anatolian macroscopic characteristics, is intriguing because intensive production of tools made of local flint was also identified at the site through the analysis of surface scatters. This finding raises the question of the status of obsidian and associated procurement systems. The presence of obsidian can be also used to argue that certain coastal villages acted as nodes of exchange for Aegean seafarers at times in the late 7th millennium B.C.     

Molecular identification and characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in ancient Egyptian mummies

A considerable number of molecular studies have provided evidence for the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTB) DNA in ancient skeletal and mummified material. Moreover first studies on the differentiation of sub‐types of the MTB (M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. africanum, M. microti, M. canettii) have successfully been performed on ancient tissue samples. In our present study we extend previous analyses and investigate bone and soft tissue samples from 118 ancient Egyptian mummies and skeletons from the Pre‐ to Early Dynastic site of Abydos and different tomb complexes in Thebes West, which were built and used between the Middle and New Kingdom until the Late Period (c. 2050–500 BC). The samples were tested for the presence of MTB DNA and further identified by spoligotyping. Twenty‐six samples provided molecular evidence for the presence of ancient mycobacterial DNA by amplification of a 123 base pair fragment of the repetitive element IS6110. Out of the 26 positive samples, 12 provided a complete spoligotyping signature, which was compared to an international database. Ten further cases showed an incomplete, patchy hybridization pattern, while in four cases no spoligotyping signature could be obtained. Interestingly, they all show either a M. tuberculosis or M. africanum pattern, but none revealed a M. bovis specific pattern. In the material from a Middle Kingdom tomb (used exclusively between c. 2050–1650 BC) several samples revealed a M. africanum type specific spoligotyping signature, while samples from later periods provided patterns typical for M. tuberculosis. This study clearly shows that spoligotyping can be used for the characterization of members of the MTB in historic tissue samples. In addition, our results do not support the theory that M. tuberculosis originated from the M. bovis type. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Integrated isotopic study of Early Intermediate Period camelid husbandry in the Santa Valley,Perú

ABSTRACT

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope compositions were determined for camelid bone collagen, hair, and wool (fibre) sampled from textiles from archaeological sites in the Santa Valley (north coast of Perú) occupied during Moche III (El Castillo, A.D. 300?500) and Moche IV (Guadalupito, A.D. 500?700) phases; a small number of camelid bone collagen samples were also analysed from the Late Suchimancillo Phase (A.D. 0?300). These data suggest that localised camelid husbandry was practiced in the Santa Valley from at least the Moche III phase. The nature of camelid husbandry likely involved animals being kept spatially segregated and fed a diverse range of fodder. The isotopic compositions of the bone collagen and wool textiles were very similar, which suggests that the wool that was used to produce the textiles was derived from local camelids rather than being acquired from the highlands. The transition from Moche III to Moche IV, which saw a significant increase in Mochica presence in the Santa Valley, was not accompanied by major changes in camelid husbandry practices. Localised camelid husbandry continued through this transition with minimal change; the prolonged droughts of the sixth century A.D. had no discernable effect on camelid husbandry, probably due to the special hydraulic conditions unique to the Santa Valley.     

Neutron Activation Analysis of Obsidian From Kalavasos-Tenta

Abstract

The small quantity of obsidian used by the Aceramic Neolithic occupants of Cyprus was imported, there being no source on the island.

The chemical composition, determined by neutron activation analysis, of six samples of obsidian from Kalavasos-Tenta indicates that they were derived from the central Anatolian, Göllü Da? (çiftlik: Group 2b) source. On the basis of chemical composition, obsidian from five Cypriot Aceramnic Neolithic sites has the same provenance. Our data suggest that the fragments we analyzed were not derived from a single core and, because obsidian occurs throughout the Aceramic period of occupation of kalavasos-Tenta, it appears unlikely that the 36 artifacts recovered from the site represent a one-time transfer of material. This suggests an enduring supply, and implies to us that the inhabitants of Kalavasos-Tenta were never completely isolated from the mainland.     

An Analysis of the Gut Contents of Five Well-Preserved Human Bodies from Tarapacá, Northern Chile

The detailed microscopic analysis of the gut contents from five well-preserved desiccated human bodies, dated between 540 BC and AD 600, from the Tarapacá quebrada, Northern Chile, has been undertaken. This analysis indicated that local wild resources such as the seeds of Chenopodium sp., pods of Prosopis sp. and the underground organs of Schoenoplectus/Scirpus sp. made up a substantial part of the diet even after the presence of domesticated species can be demonstrated for the area. Evidence for the consumption of fish was also recovered but the identification of larger mammals such as the Andean camelids in the diet is only tentative. This stands in contrast to the data recovered from other classes of archaeological remains and highlights the need to correlate as many different classes of complementary data as possible if a more complete picture of ancient diet is to be forthcoming.