五四新文化运动中译出的《达尔文物种原始》

１９世纪末２０世纪初,在中国最流行的西方学说是进化论。中国人了解进化论,是通过早期江南制造局译出的《地学浅释》、《金石识别》等,更多的知识分子则是以严复１８９５年据赫胥黎《进化论与伦理学》一书达旨的《天演论》为媒介的。尽管赫胥黎是达尔文学说的忠实捍卫者,但《进化论与伦理学》毕竟只是一本小册子,不完全等同于达尔文的进化论。何况,通过严复的“创造性叛逆”,在评述过程中进行了加工、增删和改译,并掺入了大量自己阐释的按语,因此,中国人看到的已不是达尔文宣扬的进化论,而是斯宾塞社会进化论的混和物。 早在１…     

斯宾塞“社会有机体”论与清季国家主义——以章太炎、严复为中心

斯宾塞的"社会有机体"学说对清季民族主义思潮的影响毋庸置疑。可问题是,此一鼓吹个人主义的学说何以会成为合群保种的思潮?对此,史华兹、冯客等学者都看到,斯宾塞的社会有机体学说与他鼓吹的个人主义有矛盾,正是前者成为中国近代民族主义的理论资源。然而,这一解释仍有未尽之处。从章太炎、严复的论述中能够看到何以斯宾塞的社会有机体学说在中国会成为国家竞争的学说,及彼时中国人自由观与斯宾塞自由观之差异所在。应当说,斯宾塞的个人自由与国家权力是对立的,而在中国,二者则具有同一性,这也决定了斯宾塞学说在中国的命运。     

美国历史上的社会达尔文主义思潮

社会达尔文主义在十九世纪六十年代产生于欧洲,迅速传至美国,在十九世纪后期是欧美各国资产阶级维护资本主义剥削制度的重要思想武器。到十九世纪末二十世纪初,随着帝国主义时代的到来,社会达尔文主义又成为列强互相争夺世界、奴役掠夺被压迫民族的思想工具。在中国,严复等维新派思想家在输入西方自然科学和先进思想的同时也输入了社会达尔文主义思想。他们当然不是要为列强瓜分中国辩护,而是企图用社会达尔文主义的“物竞天择,适者生存”的理论来警戒中国抱残守缺的封建统治者,借以鼓吹维新变法,自立自强。社会达尔文主义在中国     

严复社会史观的建构与近代史学转向

严复对社会史观的建构颇有“西方史学本土化”、“中国传统史学近代化”这一近代史学转向的特征。以往学术界探究严复社会史观的理论建构的专文鲜见,笔者从思想与社会互动的层面对此作探索,既在横向层面关注严复社会史观的理论源头,即斯宾塞社会进化论、甄克思宗法制度论、西莱政治史学等学术思想与本土学术资源中苟子的社群观、杨朱之自利、墨子之兼爱及佛教的“心境之说”等思想,又从中西文化会通的社会语境中分析严复社会史观的嬗变及其昭示的理论得失。     

明治哲学史概观(二)

第二节功利主义的内容及其作用明治十年前的哲学启蒙活动几乎是西周一人的独角戏,但是从明治十年开始,进化论和上述实证主义哲学并列逐渐在思想界占有势力。在进化论的移植上,明治初期招聘的外国人有很大影响。明治十一年开成校改名东京大学时,聘请了美国自然科学者莫斯、继而芬纳娄萨来日。这两个人都是进化论的信奉者,莫斯在动物学领域里宣传进化论,芬纳娄萨在大学里讲进化论的同时,也讲了斯宾塞的社会进化论、黑格尔的发展学说。当时,刚从美国归来的外山正一、矢田部良吉也和这些外国人共同提倡进化论。     

进化之调律:斯宾塞与清末的种群竞争论述

斯宾塞学说构成清末种群进化和竞争论述的主要外在资源。斯宾塞以进化的哲学思维来缀合威廉·卡彭特、查尔斯·赖尔所代表的动物生理学和生物历史知识,回应马尔萨斯的人口论。19世纪50年代以来在中国译介和流行的正是卡彭特所代表的生理学著述片段或与其相似的种群差别认知。知识界对斯宾塞的翻译,意味着中国在戊戌时期发生了类似的理论缀合过程。清末知识人以种分贵贱、黄白同为贵种调整了斯宾塞的种群进化位阶表述,抵制欧洲人歧视东亚黄种之心。同时,他们却强化了贵贱种之间的等级关系,营造"退化""灭种"的焦虑意识和压迫感,警告需积极参与生存竞争来提升种群的心智和自律性,从而为政治变革酝酿社会气氛。     

从岸本能武太到章太炎:自由与秩序之思的跨洋交流

19世纪下半叶,自由放任资本主义引发的社会问题,令偏向个人主义的斯宾塞社会学说遭到质疑,并引发关于个人自由与社会秩序关系的深入思考。在西学东渐大潮推动下,欧美学界的思考以学术译介的方式传入日本和中国,并因文化传统、话语体系、时政背景以及学者个人因素的差异而发生流变。岸本能武太《社会学》在斯宾塞社会有机体说基础上,以"非社会性"对译人类反抗社会秩序的"反社会性"特征,在缓解斯宾塞个人自由观念给日本社会带来紧张感的同时,借此对抗日本日益膨胀的国家主义思潮。章太炎通过翻译岸本《社会学》,将个人自由思想与中国传统思想中的"逃群"、"隐"、"废"等理念勾连,以"出世"方式抵抗清末新政,为革命提供思想和理论支持。     

“落后就要挨打”论已过时

“落后就要挨打”,换言之,“强大便能打人”,这是社会达尔文主义的观点。社会达尔文主义,产生于19世纪的欧洲。1897年严复译著《天演论》把这种思想介绍到中国,说“物竞天择,适者生存”不仅是自然界的法则,也是人类社会的法则。     

日本1994年清史研究概况

一、清（1840年以前）近年的清史研究,不再局限于对传统中国社会内部具有固定结构特征的“共同体”的考察,而是注重探究社会集团的产生、衰亡及其流动变化。由此着眼,必然会产生新的问题。岸本美绪先生就曾提出：“在咱由’社会里,秩序如何成为可能呢？”（岸本美绪《“市民社会”论与中国》,历史评论））527）换言之,在实现高度社会流动的传统中国社会,秩序形成的系统以及稳定组合的要素究竟是什么？或者说,原有结构的核心是什么？我们将以此为基准,对去年发表的众多研究论著展开述评。在法制史方面,寺田洁明《明清时期法秩序中…     

“价值”优先下的“事实”重建：清季民初新史家寻找中国历史“进化”的努力

清末民初的一种流行观点认为,中国自秦汉以下皆在退化或循环中。但按照社会进化论,它也就意味着中国处在人类历史“公例”之外,面临必然被淘汰的危险,这促使一批新史家在中国历史中寻找“进步”的迹象。然而,因为传统政治和学术主流皆被视为“专制的”,他们不得不另辟蹊径。梁启超等人为此提出两个方案,一是把中国历史描述为一步步走向“世界”的过程;一是弱化传统政治史的地位,强调社会史、文明史、民史的重要性。这两种现象皆和社会进化论有密切而曲折的学理关系,结果把一些过去认为非“正统”的现象升格为历史叙述的主线。经过这番改造后,历史的“价值”与“事实”再次统一起来。     

Evolution and a free society: Spencer,Kropotkin and popper

Despite the negative connotations often associated with ‘Social Darwinism’, theorists representing a wide range of political opinion have drawn on Darwinian ideas to support their own positions. An examination of the views of Spencer, Kropotkin and Popper, as representatives of the Right, the Left and the Centre, provides an interesting basis for a consideration of the application of Darwin's thesis to social and political life. Although these theorists develop very different visions of the good society, they are all Darwinists, and they all use an evolutionary model to support their visions of a free society. A comparison between their different use and interpretation of Darwinism, and a critical evaluation of their positions, displays the significance of Darwinism as well as identifying some of the major difficulties which arise in the attempt to apply this perspective to a consideration of political issues.     

Historiography and Chinese modernity—A study of the historiographical ideas of Li Dazhao

ABSTRACT

In search of modernity in China, history played a crucial role. Many leading intellectuals in modern China were historians and/or historical thinkers. Despite his untimely death, Li Dazhao was particularly important. Among his cohorts, Li was arguably the first one who paid close attention to the need for the Chinese to change their views of the past and accept Darwinism as a new historical outlook. That Li later became an avowed Marxist also had a good deal to do with his belief in Darwinism or evolutionism. He was fully convinced that history moves along a linear progressive path, which enabled him and many others to argue the necessity of changing China for the modern. In a word, the acceptance of historical evolutionism paved the way for the commitment to modernity by the Chinese.     

Books in Summary

Darwinism and the Linguistic Image: Language, Race, and NaturalTheology in the Nineteenth Century, by Stephen G. Alter La Mythologie du Matriarcat, L'Atelie de Johann Jakob Bachofen, by Philippe Borgeaud with Nicole Durisch, Antje Kolde, Grégoire Sommer Social History: Problems, Strategies and Methods, by MilesFairburn Reflections on Revolutions, by Mark N. Katz Faces of History: Historical Inquiry from Herodotus to Herder, by Donald R. Kelley Who Do We Think We Are? Race and Nation in the Modern World, Philip Nicholson     

In the cause of science

Jane C. Steward and Robert F. Murphy, eds. Evolution and Ecology: Essays in Social Transformation by Julian H. Steward. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977. ix +406 pp. Maps, figures, references, biographical notes. $12.95.     

Determinism and Indeterminism in Foreign Geography Part I

The history of geographical determinism is traced from Antiquity through the Renaissance until, in the author's view, it was first introduced into geography by Carl Ritter. Friedrich Ratzel, by supplementing classical determinism with Social Darwinism, laid the basis for a modern determinism that led ultimately to the school of geopolitics. Geopolitics is found to have interested Western geographers even after its Nazi German version was discredited. The ideas of geographical determinism, aside from being used by the advocates of geopolitics, also led to the environmentalism of Ellen Semple and Ellsworth Huntington and its more modern versions. Efforts to moderate the initially extreme forms of environmentalism (Griffith Taylor's stop-and-go determinism, O. H. K. Spate's probabilism) are analyzed from the Marxist viewpoint.     

BOOK REVIEW ESSAYS

Louis K. Bragaw, Managing a Federal Agency: The Hidden Stimulus
Raymond A. Shapek, Managing Federalism: Evolution and Development of the Grant-In-Aid System
Walter Williams with the assistance of Betty Jane Narver, Government by Agency: Lessons from the Social Program Grants-In-Aid Experience
Gilbert Steiner, The Futility of Family Policy
Z. I. Giraldo, Public Policy and the Family: Wives and Mothers in the Labor
Harold Wallach, editor, Approaches to Child and Family policy     

Reviews/Comptes rendus

Fur Trade Posts of the Northwest Territories 1870–1970
The Evolution and Economy of the Delta Community
The Bankslanders: Economy and Ecology of a Frontier Trapping Community (3 vols.)
Great Britain's Woodyard: British America and the Timber Trade
The Study of Urban Geography
Urban Geography: A Social Perspective
Systems Theory: A Framework for Human Geographical Enquiry
National Resource Policy in Canada - Issues and Perspectives
Farming and Food Supply: The Interdependence of Countryside and Town
Polish Agriculture, Characteristics, Types and Regions
The World Ocean: An Introduction to Oceanography     

Advances in the evolution of society

Ronald Cohen and Elman R. Service, eds. Origins of the State. The Anthropology of Political Evolution. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1978. 233 pp. Index.

J. Friedman and M. J. Rowlands, eds. The Evolution of Social Systems. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978. xv 562 pp. Index.     

The Archaeology of High Culture and ItsDiscontents

Alexander, R. D. The Biology of Moral Systems. New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1987. xx + 301 pp. including bibliography, name index, and subject index. $34.95 cloth, $16.95 paper.

Ingold, Tim. Evolution and Social Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. xv + 431 pp. including notes, bibliography, name index, and subject index. $54.50 cloth, $15.95 paper.     

Reviews/Comptes rendus

Book reviewed in this article:
Recreational Land Use: Perspectives on Its Evolution in Canada , edited by G eoffrey W all and J ohn S. M arsh
Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts , by A lister M athieson and G eoffrey W all
The Rural Real Estate Market: Geographic Patterns of Structure and Change in an Urban Fringe Environment , by C hris B ryant
Environmental Aesthetics: Essays in Interpretation , edited by B arry S adler and A llen C arlson
Historical Understanding in Geography: An Idealist Approach , by L eonard G uelke
Period and Place: Research Methods in Historical Geography , edited by A lan R.H. B aker and M ark B illinge