南京国民政府前期官费留学经费考察(1927-1937)

近代中国留学事业蓬勃兴起.南京国民政府成立初期,在留学管理政策等方面基本延续了晚清和北洋政府时期的相关政策,但还是有一定的区别,主要体现在留学经费的来源与使用方面.南京国民政府初年留学经费来源渠道不一,在经费拮据的前提下,政府实行了严格的预决算制度.此外,政府还通过鼓励团体和私人资助等形式多方筹措资金,以保障公费留学生的培养所需.经费使用方面,政府在保障学费供给的前提下,为鼓励留学生学业更进一步,对于继续深造的学生往往给予一定资费补助,同时加大了对自费留学生的奖励和扶持.通过对南京国民政府初年留学经费来源和使用情况的考察,发现其经费虽捉襟见肘,但经费的筹措与使用逐步明晰化、制度化,因而在留学生培养上取得了一定成效.     

A case of valgus ankle in an early Pleistocene hominin

Bipedal locomotion is a defining character of the hominin lineage. A skeletal correlate of bipedality is a perpendicularly oriented tibia relative to the plane of the ankle joint, positioning the foot directly under the centre of mass. Non‐human primates, in contrast, possess a tibial shaft that tilts laterally away from the plane of the ankle joint (valgus ankle), which positions the foot in inversion and is adaptive for arboreal climbing. KNM‐ER 2596 is a small distal tibia from 1.9 mya sediments at Koobi Fora, Kenya. Though it possesses some morphologies functionally linked to bipedality, such as an expanded metaphysis, it also possesses a valgus tilt to the ankle. We test the competing hypotheses that the KNM‐ER 2596 tibia is from a cercopithecoid, a non‐human hominoid, or a pathological hominin. A survey of the orthopaedic literature and a comparative study of modern human and non‐human primate tibiae support the hypothesis that KNM‐ER 2596 is from a hominin. In order to investigate the non‐phylogenetic causes of valgus ankle, we examined human skeletal tibiae with valgus tilt secondary to fracture of the distal fibula. Untreated breaks of the lower third portion of the fibula during childhood can result in a valgus tilt to the distal tibia and occasionally other peculiar morphologies found in the KNM‐ER 2596 tibia such as a superoinferiorly atrophied medial malleolus. The morphology of this tibia is incompatible with hypotheses that it is from a cercopithecoid or a hominoid, and instead, we suggest that KNM‐ER 2596 belonged to a hominin that may have suffered a fracture of the lower left fibula as a juvenile. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

南京国民政府县级政权的运作机制：1927—1937年

南京国民政府时期(1927-1937年),县级政权运作机制开始向分职化、科层化运作方向发展.县的法律地位与组织架构较为明确,县行政体制中出现了县政会议、县行政会议、区长会议、县党政谈话会、以及各类专门委员会会议等运作方式;县对地方事务也有一定的立法权和决定权;县司法与县行政逐步分立.县级政权运作机制中出现的这种新因素,不同程度地体现了近代资本主义国家地方政权组织中分权制衡的基本原则,具有一定的积极意义.但由于种种原因,这些因素在实际操作层面,成效不大,因而其象征意义要大于其现实意义.     

The New South Wales Labor Party's 1927 Rules: A case study of democracy and oligarchy within political parties

Scholars have long recognised a propensity towards oligarchy within political parties. I explore this tendency through an examination of the New South Wales (NSW) Labor Party's 1927 Rules. These reforms are important because, by significantly decentralising power within the party, they demonstrate how the inclination towards oligarchy can be resisted. The adoption of the 1927 Rules, however, also coincided with the increasing centralisation of power in the hands of NSW Labor leader Jack Lang and his allies. This occurred largely in spite of the new rules, not because of them. It was able to happen, however, because the reforms sustained a crucial democratic flaw in the party constitution in that they continued to give excessive power to the leaders of affiliated trade unions.

学者们很早就注意到政党内的寡头化倾向。本文通过对新南威尔士1927年规则的研究,探讨了这种倾向。改革之所以重要,就在于它在党内分散了权力,在于改革表明了寡头化的倾向可以得到遏制。不过,1927规则通过的同时,权力也越发向新南威尔士工党首领杰克郎及其支持者的手里集中。1927规则没能阻止集权,而不是导致了集权。集权之所以发生,是因为改革在党章中保留了一个至关重要的民主弊端,即给予相关工会领导人过大的权力。     

Sickle blade life-history and the transition to agriculture: an early Neolithic case study from Southwest Asia

In Southwest Asia, sickle blades first appear early in the sequence of the transition to agriculture. In the past, detailed qualitative research on silica bearing blade stone tools focus on the characterization of use-wear traces such as polish types and accrual rates. In this paper we approach the study of sickle blades slightly different, choosing to examine tool life-history by developing a method to quantitatively estimate harvesting intensity. The method centers on an experiment of cutting cereal stalks and measuring stone blade edge thickness under a scanning electron microscope as a proxy for cutting time. We end with regressing the experimental results to provide an estimation of how intensively archaeological sickle blades recovered from the site of Dhra’, Jordan were used for harvesting. The results, while preliminary, enable an initial interpretation of sickle blades as important tools with long use-life histories during the early Neolithic in the Southern Levant.     

Darwin's historical sketch - an American predecessor: C.S. Rafinesque

When early reviewers of Darwin's "On the origin of species" chided him for neglecting to mention predecessors to his theory of evolution, he added an "historical sketch" in later editions. Among the predecessors he cited was a French émigré to American named Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, who in the mid-1830s had written about the emergence of new species at a time when most naturalists (including Darwin initially) accepted the biblical story of creation and assumed the immutability of species. Rafinesque discovered and named thousands of new plants and animals in his American travels and flooded the taxonomic literature with reports, which seemed incomplete, confusing, and excessive to other naturalists. He alienated many who later dismissed his findings and excluded them from the biological literature. Soon after Rafinesque's death in 1840, Asa Gray, the young American botanist, wrote a damning critique of his work and suggested it be ignored. How Darwin learned of Rafinesque and his views on species is the focus of this essay, which also mentions briefly the two other American naturalists cited by Darwin in his sketch. Gray seems the likely informant through his correspondence with Darwin or his close associates.     

Perimortem mutilation of human remains in an early village in the American Southwest: A case for ethnic violence

Recent excavations at the Sacred Ridge Site, just south of the town of Durango, Colorado, have uncovered the single largest deposit (to date) of mutilated and processed human remains in the American Southwest. This deposit dates to the very late eighth or very early ninth century A.D. and therefore represents an incidence of large-scale violence and perimortem mutilation dating to the Pueblo I period (A.D. 700–900), when initial village formation occurred in the northern San Juan Region of the Southwest. Expectations for various interpretations for the Sacred Ridge assemblage are generated based on previous research and cross-cultural data on cannibalism, warfare, and human bone processing. Based on a lack of fit with previous models developed to account for extreme processing (EP) events, including starvation cannibalism, warfare and social intimidation, and witch-craft accusations, it is proposed that the Sacred Ridge massacre was the result of ethnic conflict during the Pueblo I period.     

Charlemagne's peaches: a case of early medieval European ecological adaptation

What happened to the many ‘Mediterranean’ fruits the Romans brought to north‐west Europe when the empire that supported their dissemination ended? Charlemagne's capitulary De villis called for the cultivation of various fruit trees, including peach (Prunus persica). That fruit hits the sweet spot between plants that were rare in early medieval northern Francia, like date palm, and those that were commonplace, like plum. Thus, the peach is an excellent proxy for Charlemagne's imperial and ecological aspirations. Using both written and archaeobotanical evidence for peaches in Francia, this article analyses how adapting exotic plants to northern climates served the purposes of early medieval rulers.     

The development of a scientific understanding of synesthesia from early case studies (1849-1873)

The first case of synesthesia was reported in 1812 ( Jewanski, Day, & Ward, 2009 ). However, it took almost seven decades before the idea of synesthesia entered the mainstream of science and, subsequently, art. There are no known new cases described between 1812 and 1848, but in the following three decades there are at least 11 reported cases of synesthesia and many reviews of these cases. This comes at an important period in the history of the neurosciences, and for sensory physiology in particular. However, the literature that describes synesthesia during this period is largely unknown to contemporary researchers and historians. The aim of this review is to discuss the reports of synesthesia during this period, providing translations of some key passages, and to place these reports within the contextual framework of nineteenth-century neuroscience.     

The life and career of Master Wiger of Utrecht (fl. 1209-1237): an early convert to the Order of Friars Minor

Master Wiger of Utrecht was a prominent ecclesiastical personality in the lower Rhineland during the early thirteenth century (fl. 1209-1237). Trained in theology and law, he rose rapidly through the prelacy, serving as dean and then provost of St Peter's Collegiate Church, Utrecht. As a member of the episcopal mensa, Wiger was also an active participant in diocesan and metropolitan affairs throughout the 1210s and 1220s; he probably even accompanied his bishop to Damietta, Egypt, to take part in the Fifth Crusade. However, after 1228, Wiger gave up his comfortable existence and joined the fledgling Franciscan Order. It was as a Minorite friar that Wiger conducted an official visitation of the order's English province in 1237. He did so at the behest of the controversial Minister General, Elias of Cortona.This essay traces Wiger's professional and scholarly attainments and explores his connection to various ecclesiastical and secular figures of the era. It examines the institutional support and material assistance offered to the mendicant movement by Wiger's associates amongst the prelacy and nobility of the Hohenstaufen Empire. Attention is also given to Master Wiger's literary activity and his status as one of the earliest identifiable creators of a searchable exempla compendium.     

Legitimation and delegitimation in early modern Europe: The case of England

In the year 1640, the government of England was monarchical; and the King that reigned, Charles, the first of that name, holding sovereignty, by right of a descent continued above six hundred years, and from a much longer descent King of Scotland, and from the time of his ancestor Henry II, King of Ireland …     

'Stop the Flapper Vote Folly': Lord Rothermere, the Daily Mail, and the Equalization of the Franchise 1927-28

This essay re-examines the Daily Mail's campaign in 1927–8against the Baldwin government's decision to equalize the franchiseby lowering the female voting age to 21. It argues that theMail's hostility to the ‘flapper vote’ was largelya product of the passionate anti-socialism of its proprietor,Lord Rothermere, and not, as has been suggested, the culminationof a decade of anti-feminism. Rothermere was convinced thatyoung women would vote overwhelmingly for the Labour Party andentrench it in government for a generation. But attacks on the‘flapper’ in 1927–8 were generally confinedto the paper's editorial and political columns, and contrastedwith the much more positive portrayal of young women that hadbeen typical of the Mail's output since 1918. The example ofthe Daily Express, which supported franchise equalization, isused to demonstrate that it was Rothermere's idiosyncratic politicalpinions, rather than the ‘typical’ anti-feminismof the Conservative press, that explained the Mail's stance.The article concludes that the gender discourse of interwarnewspapers has been unfairly stereotyped by historians, andthat media hostility to young, unmarried women in these yearshas been exaggerated.     

A Fisk patent metallic burial case from Western Missouri: an interdisciplinary and comprehensive effort to reconstruct the history of an early settler of Lexington,Missouri

In 2006 a cast-iron coffin was discovered in an unmarked burial plot in Lexington, Missouri. A multifaceted investigation was conducted to provide historical documentation and possible identification of the individual. The coffin is an early Fisk Patent Metallic Burial Case. Osteological analyses indicate that the skeletal remains belong to a 20 to 30 year old white female who consistently ate an omnivorous diet with significant amounts of C4 plants or seafood. Rib morphology and her burial garments suggest she frequently wore restrictive clothing. No gross skeletal pathological lesions or trauma were observed except for a patch of reactive bone and an atypical pattern of bone remodeling on the visceral surface of the sixth rib. Subsequent bacterial DNA analysis of the ribs and sternum indicate the presence of tuberculosis infection. Although not conclusive, multiple lines of evidence are consistent with the skeletal remains representing Elizabeth (Triplett) Stewart who died in 1854 of pulmonary tuberculosis. This multidisciplinary research significantly contributes to the local history of Lexington, Missouri and provides a likely identification of the deceased individual for the Stewart Family.     

A nineteenth-century case of carcinoma of the prostate,with a note on the early history of the disease

A case of prostatic carcinoma is described in the skeleton of a named individual who died in 1834. The tumour was recognized from widespread periosteal new bone throughout the skeleton and by the presence of sclerosing metastases in many bones, including the pelvis and all the vertebrae. A number of features of the disease present here are said to be uncommon in modern patients, including spiculated periosteal new bone and some degree of spinal stenosis. In two previous cases of prostatic carcinoma described in the literature, periosteal new bone was a prominent feature and was probably responsible for the disease being recognized. It is likely that if skeletons from mature males were routinely X-rayed, considerably more cases would be noted and a more accurate estimate of the prevalence of this disease in the past would thus be ascertained. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Henry Head in Ewald Hering's laboratory in Prague 1884-1886: an early study on the nervous control of breathing

Henry Head, the English neurologist, received the main parts of his academic education in Cambridge and in London. In addition, he spent two years in Prague where he worked in the physiology department of the German university under the guidance of Ewald Hering. He was interested in the nervous control of breathing and worked out a new method of recording the tension and the contractions of the diaphragm in anaesthetised animals. His results substantiated the experimental basis of the Hering-Breuer reflexes and included the discovery of a new reflex now named Head's paradoxical reflex. Head not only wrote an extensive paper about his scientific work, the recollections of his time in Prague also formed a considerable part of his autobiographical notes. These were written some forty years later and still expressed a deep affection for his teacher and mentor.