段祺瑞的“武力统一”与日本的对华政策

袁世凯自毙后,在近代中国政治舞台上,开始了由段祺瑞皖系军阀粉墨登场、扮演角色的时期,直到1920年7月,以直皖战争中皖系军阀的失败而收场。在段皖当政的四年中,段祺瑞孜孜以求的就是推行其“武力统一”政策,以把全国的军政大权统一到以他为首的皖系军阀手中。为此,他可以不顾舆论的压力,也可以背负卖国的罪名,与日本签订一系列丧权辱国的条约和协定,以换取日本的援助。对这一引发和牵动了一系列历史事件的“武力统一”进行研究,实有必要。本文仅就段祺瑞的“武力统一”与日本的关系问题,提出自己粗浅的看法。     

另一个段祺瑞

段祺瑞是北洋时期皖系的头目。北洋时期应该算近代史最黑暗的时期：军阀割据,相互征战残杀,压榨盘剥百姓,独裁,腐败,阻碍全国统一。段祺瑞更是“三一八”惨案的制造者,鲁迅先生记念刘和珍一文早就把他鞭挞得体无完肤。     

直皖战争与日本

皖系军阀是日本一手扶植的亲日势力,在皖系控制下的北京政府(1916年6月—1920年7月),其对内对外政策,完全服从于日本帝国主义的侵略需要。日本以金钱、军械武器支持段祺瑞在北洋派中扩充皖系的军事实力,从而在北方形成了皖系军阀的反动统治政权。在直皖两派的矛盾和斗争中,日本始终是压制直系扶植皖系。段祺瑞为首的皖系军阀,以各种形式出卖国家主权利益,使日本在华攫取了大量政治上、经济上的侵略特权。故而支     

直皖矛盾和直皖战争

北洋军阀是袁世凯建立的封建军阀集团,它的统治给中国人民带来了沉重的灾难。1916年袁死后,北洋军阀在帝国主义支持下,分裂为直系、皖系和奉系三派,其中直皖两系实力最强、影响最大。直系和皖系的矛盾和斗争,反映着帝国主义侵略中国的矛盾,也往往影响着中国政局的变化。因此,直皖矛盾和直皖战争是中国近代史上值得研究的重要课题之一。直、皖两系的名称,根据冯国璋是直隶人而称直系;段祺瑞是安徽人而称皖系。早在小站练兵时期,冯国璋、段祺瑞就在袁世凯手下争权夺宠。袁在位时,段历任陆军总长,掌     

段祺瑞及北洋皖系研究述评

段祺瑞及北洋皖系研究述评胡晓段祺瑞（１８６５－１９３６）;原名启瑞,字芝泉,晚号正道老人,安徽合肥人。他出身于军人和地主家庭,接受过清末新兴军事学堂教育,并成为第一批赴西方学习近代军事的留学生。在波谲云诡、翻云覆雨的北洋时期,他追随辅佐袁世凯,创建北...     

试论皖系军阀控制中央政权的原因及其政权的特点

一、皖系军阀控制中央政权的主客观原因(一)皖系集团是包括了各种人材的势力网络清末民初,在段祺瑞政治地位日益重要的同时,他的周围逐渐积聚了一批军人、官僚、政客,形成皖系集团。这个集团以师生关系、上下级关系、同乡关系、亲属关系等为纽带,形成了一个包括各方面人材的势力网络。这些人是皖系能够控制中央政权的骨     

论皖系军阀的形成

皖系军阀是北洋军阀集团中与直系军阀、奉系军阀鼎足而立的三个重要派系之一,也是中国近现代历史上一个占据重要地位并产生过相当大影响的军阀派系.关于这一派系的形成问题,学术界尚存在较大的分歧.本文从近代中国特定的社会历史背最、段祺瑞的个人因素以及清末民初各种势力之间的矛盾争斗三个方面,对皖系军阀的形成问题作了专门而较有深度的论述,揭示了皖系军阀的形成原因及其由胚胎而胎儿而脱胎成为军阀派系势力的形成过程.     

《中华民国史》第二编第二卷序言

本卷叙述的内容,是以北洋军阀皖系统治为中心的中国政治斗争与变化过程。时间从1916年6月袁世凯败亡后,段祺瑞上台,皖系军阀开始控制北京中央政权,到1920年7月直皖战争,直胜皖败为止,前后正好四年。     

北洋军阀靳云鹏的人生沉浮

在北洋军阀统治时期,靳云鹏曾经是显赫一时的风云人物。他两度担任国务总理,掌握军政大权。论资望,靳云鹏在北洋派中仅次于王士珍、段祺瑞、冯国璋等人,与皖系、直系、奉系等派系要人都有较深的关系,见证了民国初年的风云变幻。     

北洋时期参战军(边防军)、西北边防军研究

随着直皖矛盾激化,段祺瑞为了维持在北京政府中的地位及完成南北统一,以中国对德宣战参加一战为契机,在日本的经济和军事援助下,编练了参战军(一战结束后改称边防军)。约同一时期,皖系干将徐树铮编练了西北边防军。1920年直皖战争爆发,边防军和西北边防军均不同程度卷入。皖系战败后,两军除少数阵亡,部分被遣散外,余部被直奉瓜分,最终归于消亡。     

Telling small stories: spaces of knowledge and the practice of geography

This article examines how the practice of learning geography, and the arenas in which knowledge-making takes place, can be usefully positioned within changing histories of the discipline. It contends that networks of action – understood through the intersection of social sites, subjects and sources – present a conceptual framework and narrative focus for the re-consideration of specific episodes from geography's past. The interventions made here are informed and illustrated by a 'small story' about the doing of geography. Based on different personal accounts, the story revives a series of events, encounters, dialogues and images dating back to the winter of 1951 at Glenmore Lodge, Scotland. This educational institution in the Cairngorm mountains offered children from urban areas the opportunity to learn field studies and the skills of 'outdoor citizenship'. Initially, the focus falls on Margaret Jack, a 14-year-old field-course participant. Her learning experiences are traced through personal letters, a diary and a field journal dating from that time, and her recent recollections of this event. Margaret's account dovetails with the story of her field studies instructor, Robin Murray. Robin's role is traced through his learning experiences as a geography undergraduate at Aberdeen University, and the recent recollections of Catriona Murray, his wife.     

Das Wissen der Schulden. Recht,Kulturtechnik und Alltagserfahrung im liberalen Kapitalismus

The Knowledge of Debt: Law, Media Technique, and Everyday Experience in Liberal Capitalism. Performing an object such as ‘the economy’ hinges on practices of formatting knowledge. The article proposes to look at such instituting moments in connection with social conflicts over the legitimate rules of exchange. This is exemplified by way of recounting the story of the codification of Swiss bankruptcy law in 1889. In order to homogenize the legal procedures of debt collection and bankruptcy, two subject categories were instituted: ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. These different categories were thought to account for the diverging temporalities and spaces of credit exchange in everyday economic life. The introduction of the commercial register, a media-technical apparatus, enabled a formal distinction between ‘merchants’ and ‘non-merchants’. However, this boundary was contested and proved to be porose.     

Two radiocarbon dates for freshwater shells from hierakonpolis: Archaeological and geological interpretations

Shells of two species of freshwater bivalve (Unio willcocksi Bullen Newton and Etheria elliptica Lamarck) from the predynastic Gerzean (Nagada II) Decorated Tomb at Hierakonpolis, Egypt have given dates of 5000±90 bp for the tomb, and 12,900±120 bp for an episode of Nile terrace accumulation (correlated here with the Sahaba-Darau aggradation event). The archaeological and geological significance of these results is discussed, together with an outline of problems associated with radiocarbon dating of shell. Comparisons are made with the few other radiocarbon dates available for the Predynastic period in Egypt and possible reasons for the presence of shells in the tomb are considered.     

Some chronological implications of a fossil molluscan assemblage from a neolithic site at Brook,Kent, England

The later post-glacial history of a valley in the chalk escarpment near Brook, Kent, is described, based on molluscan stratigraphy, archaeological evidence and radio-carbon dating. Differences in size and colour banding, respectively, of fossil and living representatives of two species of land snails, Pomatias elegans (Müller) and Cepaea nemoralis (L.), are correlated with climatic change during the post-glacial period. The problems of the use of fossil shells of these species as samples for radiocarbon dating are discussed.     

China's Dynamic Industrial Sector: The Internet Industry

A Singapore-based economic geographer explores and analyzes the spatially uneven evolution of the Internet industry in China, arguing that the country's immense regional disparity in the provision of Internet services is best explained by the interplay of place- and path-dependence. The author demonstrates how the highly uneven regional endowments in relevant industrial and entrepreneurial resources have led to the substantial and persistent regional imbalance within China's emerging "new economy." His initial survey of the country's 100 leading Internet content providers (firms), identified from a listing of ca. 11,700 commercial websites, is selectively augmented to reflect an increase of over 70 million Internet users in 2007, reaching a total of 253 million in June 2008, and thus overtaking the United States as the world's largest Internet market. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L10, L86, O30. 6 figures, 1 table, 53 references.     

The 1911 International Exposition in Rome: architecture, archaeology, and national identity

This paper discusses the 1911 International Exposition in Rome and illustrates how this patriotic celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Italian Sate utilized symbolic landscapes of architecture and archaeology to promote nationalist sentiments of italianità and romanità centered on the young capital of Rome. Through modern art exhibitions at the Valle Giulia, scientific conferences at the Castel Sant’Angelo, archaeological exhibits on the Roman Empire in the Baths of Diocletian, and regional Italian pavilions in the Piazza d’Armi, exposition officials offered a complex representation of Italian national identity that was modern yet ancient, cosmopolitan yet bucolic, European yet regional, and imperial yet developing.     

The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great – The Need for Medical Analysis: Reply to Commentaries

Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. from an unknown cause. By elucidating the nature of his death, we can better interpret various aspects of Alexandrian history. Alexander’s death may have ensued from the sequelae of a congenital scoliotic syndrome. It would therefore be of significance to note that one of the greatest leaders in history who conquered much of the then known world may have been suffering from a physical disability.     

The Chemists' Style of Thinking

Der Denkstil der Chemiker. Der Aufsatz diskutiert die Tragfähigkeit des Begriffes “Denkstil”, wie er von Alistair Crombie eingeführt und Ian Hacking aufgegriffen wurde, für das Verständnis dessen, wie das Fach Chemie historisch seine Identität ausgeprägt hat. Obwohl weder Crombie noch Hacking den Begriff “Denkstil” in Bezug auf einzelne Disziplinen verwendet haben, erscheint im Fall der Chemie seine Anwendung besonders vielversprechend, weil er hier hilft, ein zentrales Problem zu thematisieren – nämlich die Frage, wie es Chemikern trotz wechselnder Gegenstandsbereiche und theoretischer Umbrüche gelang, eine eigenständige und stabile Identität auszubilden. Nach einer Einführung in den Begriff “Denkstil”, argumentiert der Aufsatz, dass die Beständigkeit der Chemie als eines Faches wesentlich in ihren Laborpraktiken gründet, die ihrerseits wiederum die spezifische Art der Fragen bestimmten, die Chemiker in ihren Forschungen stellten bzw. die Form der Antworten, nach denen sie suchten. Folgende Merkmale kennzeichnen diesen “chemischen Denkstil” (1) eine spezifische, im Herstellen begründete Form des Wissens, (2) die Befassung mit einzelnen Stoffen und Materialien statt mit Materie im Allgemeinen und (3) eine Beobachtung von Natur besonders im Hinblick auf Transformationsprozesse. The Chemists' Style of Thinking. This paper discusses the relevance of the notion of “styles of scientific thinking” introduced by Alistair Crombie and revisited by Ian Hacking, for understanding how chemistry shaped its identity. Although neither Crombie nor Hacking applied this notion to individual disciplines, it seems appropriate to use it in the case of chemistry because it helps to address a puzzling issue: how did chemists manage to shape an identity of their own, despite shifting territories and theoretical transformations? Following a presentation of the notion of style, I will argue that the stable identity of chemistry is rooted in laboratory practices, which determined the specific questions that chemists put to nature as well as the answers to their questions. The “chemical style of thinking” is characterized by i) a specific way of knowing through making, ii) the concern with individual materials rather than matter in general and iii) a specific commitment to nature.