New evidence for the establishment and management of the European fallow deer (Dama dama dama) in Roman Britain

The semi-domestic status of the European fallow deer (Dama dama dama) renders its ancient biogeography a reflection of human activity with the potential to provide important insights into the movement, trade patterns and ideology of past societies. Given this potential, fallow deer have received surprisingly little attention from scientists within the fields of archaeology, biology and zoology. Here we present new AMS radiocarbon dates, stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data and genetic evidence (the first ancient DNA sequences for the species) resulting from the analysis of a set of remains recovered from the Roman settlement at Monkton on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, UK. By viewing our results against the very limited available comparative data, this paper provides new information for the establishment and management of fallow deer in Britain. We argue that much more could be achieved with even a slight increase in sample sizes and a plea is made for greater research into this culturally significant species.     

Seasonality and age structure in an archaeological assemblage of Sika deer (Cervus nippon)

Sika deer (Cervus nippon) was one of the major terrestrial mammals hunted in Japan throughout the Jomon period, which extends from the end of the Palaeolithic until the arrival of rice agriculture in the first millennium bc . Mandibular analysis of hunted deer is believed to be more useful in determining the season of death than antlers in archaeological contexts. This paper aims to present a new method of estimating an occupational season of a Jomon site by using sika deer mandibles. This method consists of two stages. First, two measurements on a mandible should be taken. If the distribution shows any gaps among young juveniles, this strongly suggests that the sika was hunted in a specific season. Second, tooth eruption and attrition stage should be observed; this may suggest the season in which hunting took place. This method was utilized to analyse sika deer remains from Awashimadai in eastern Kanto. The result of the analysis shows that deer were hunted only from spring to summer at Awashimadai. Putting these results together with the estimate of seasonality deduced from other species strongly suggests that the site was occupied only from April to July. This paper also examines how the tooth attrition stages of sika deer progress. The preliminary comparison with red deer (Cervus elaphus) in England suggests that molar wear progresses more quickly in sika than in red deer. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fallow deer (Dama dama dama) management in Roman South-East Britain

This paper presents new carbon, nitrogen and sulphur isotope data for European fallow deer (Dama dama dama) in Roman Britain and discusses results in light of evidence from classical texts, landscape archaeology, zooarchaeology and the limited available samples of metric data. The new isotope data presented here are from Fishbourne Roman Palace (Sussex), two sites on the Isle of Thanet (Kent) and a further two sites in London. In spite of small sample sizes the data make an important contribution to the very limited corpus of scientific research on the species and provide new resolution to the nature of fallow deer movement and management in Roman Britain.     

First Introduction and Early Exploitation of the Persian Fallow Deer on Cyprus (8000–6000 cal. bc)

The Persian fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica) is currently a threatened species. However, it played an important role in many Late Glacial and Early Holocene human societies in the Near and Middle East. This is especially true of the island of Cyprus, where it was introduced at the beginning of the Neolithic and held a predominant place in human subsistence throughout Cypriot prehistory until the Bronze Age. The earliest levels of the extensive Cypriot Pre‐Pottery Neolithic B site of Shillourokambos, occupied between 8400 and 7000 cal. bc , provided 3036 identified remains of this deer. It was possible to measure or determine the age‐at‐death for 1361 and 1444 remains, respectively. Analyses allow for discussions on when the fallow deer was introduced to the island of Cyprus, its origin and how populations were managed. These studies also lead to the reconstruction of acquisition and butchery techniques, as well as culinary practices, and the morphological evolution of males and females throughout time. The Persian fallow deer was introduced to Cyprus later than suids, dogs, cats, goats and cattle, and at nearly the same time as sheep, towards ca 8000 cal. bc . Despite the absence of any skeletal changes, this introduction may reflect an attempt to domesticate the fallow deer on the nearby continental mainland. However, after being introduced to the island, deer appear to have been released into the wild and hunted. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A further example of long-bone damage due to chewing by deer

A central diaphyseal fragment of a red deer metacarpus of recent origin is described, showing signs of bone chewing by deer, the most prominent being fork formation at either end of the specimen. Compared with a red deer metacarpus from the same region described previously, the present one was in a much more advanced stage of bone destruction as a result of osteophagia. Additionally, alterations resulting from gnawing by small rodents and from root etching were present in the specimen. Detailed knowledge of the full spectrum of bone changes originating from chewing by ruminants may prevent the erroneous interpretation of such altered bones as human artefacts.     

Fork formation and other signs of osteophagia on a long bone swallowed by a red deer stag (Cervus elaphus)

A right anterior cannon bone (os metacarpale 3 + 4) of a red deer that was found in the reticulum of a 7-year-old red deer stag is described. The bone, which had accidentally been swallowed by the stag, showed clear signs of bone chewing (osteophagia), the most prominent being the formation of a fork at its distal end. Knowledge of the possible bone changes brought about by ruminant osteophagia may prevent the erroneous interpretation of skeletal remains as being worked by hominids.     

Changes in the size and shape of fallow deer—evidence for the movement and management of a species

The European fallow deer (Dama dama dama) is native to the eastern Mediterranean and whilst it is clear that its dispersion from this region was the result of human transportation, the timing and circumstances of its post‐glacial diffusion are still uncertain. Archaeological fallow deer remains offer perhaps the best opportunity to understand the deep history of the species, with measurements of ancient bones providing important information about an individual's sex and size. Unfortunately, the fragmentary nature of archaeological remains means that metrical samples are usually too small to draw any meaningful conclusions. Biometrical scaling techniques can increase the size of the sample available for comparison and in this paper log ratios are used in combination with traditional metrical analysis to provide new information about archaeological fallow deer populations, in particular highlighting the size variations across time and space and shifts in hunting and management practices. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

In view and under foot: the hidden story of fallow deer,knuckle-bone floors and British estates

SUMMARY: The chance discovery of an 18th-century knuckle-bone floor at the National Trust property of Belton House in Lincolnshire prompted a review of all known post-medieval knuckle-bone floors in Britain to examine their date, context of creation and species composition. The identification of fallow deer bones within the Belton floor became the focus of genetic analysis to examine the relationship between ancient and modern deer from the estate and how these deer related to other medieval/post-medieval populations. This paper argues that both fallow deer and knuckle-bone floors were important elements of post-medieval estate landscapes and that more could be done to present their significance to the public.     

The taphonomy of fallow deer (Dama dama) skeletons from Denmark and its bearing on the pre-Weichselian occupation of northern Europe by humans

The ecological tolerances of Neandertals, their ability to subsist in the dense forests of full interglacials, and their capacity to colonize northern latitudes are the subject of ongoing debate. The site of Hollerup (northern Denmark) lies at the northern extreme of the Neandertal range. Dated by various techniques to the Eemian interglacial (MIS 5e), this site has yielded the remains of several purportedly butchered fallow deer (Dama dama). Taphonomic reanalysis of the remains from Hollerup and a handful of other Eemian-aged fallow deer skeletons cast doubt on the interpretation that they were humanly modified. We place this revised conclusion into the wider context of human settlement of southern Scandinavia during the Eemian. Other claims of Neandertal presence in the region rest on candidate Middle Paleolithic artifacts, all of which derive from surface contexts. With the fallow deer material removed as a secure indicator of Neandertal settlement of Denmark during the last interglacial, this lithic material must be viewed with renewed skepticism. While ecological and/or topographic factors may have played an important role in preventing Neandertals from penetrating into peninsular Scandinavia, we caution that geological, taphonomic, research-historical, and demographic factors may have significantly distorted our picture of their occupation in this region.     

New results on deer from swanscombe,and the stratigraphical significance of deer in the middle and upper pleistocene of Europe

The value and limitations of mammalian fossils as biostratigraphic indicators in the Pleistocene are discussed. Aspects of a species' history which are of potential biostratigraphic value are its overall stratigraphic range, shifts in geographical distribution, evolutionary transitions, and changing abundance in the fauna. These form a complex pattern which must be established in some detail before a species can be used in dating a “new” locality. The major features of stratigraphic range, distributional history, and evolution of each of the nine species of cervid from Britain and mainland Europe during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene are outlined, with notes on their possible biostratigraphic value. Some new results on the deer remains from Swanscombe are presented. Fallow deer can be referred to subspecies Dama dama clactoniana only in the Basal and Lower Gravels and Lower Loam. There is no evidence of change in its body size within the sequence. An idiosyncrasy in the lower dentition of Swanscombe fallow is described. The red deer was the “coronate” form, and was of small body size. The giant deer was of small body size, and may have shared the broad brow tines of the Steinheim population. Roe is rare and elk is absent. The Swanscombe deer suggest a post-Cromerian, interglacial dating of all faunal levels at the site. They are consistent with a wholly Hoxnian age, but precise contemporaneity with Hoxne Bed 1 is unlikely, and the possibility of additional stages being represented cannot be excluded.     

Bone chemistry and the reconstruction of diet: Strontium discrimination in white-tailed deer

Studies of the relationship between the strontium content of human bone and past diet are still in an experimental stage. Because of the low frequency of carnivore remains at most archaeological sites and the absence of information on local strontium levels, it has been difficult to (1) estimate dietary intake for a prehistoric population, and (2) to compare prehistoric populations from spatially disparate areas. However, examination of strontium/calcium ratios in a modern herbivore may help to alleviate these problems. Bones from modern white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were compared with deer diet in Wisconsin. An observed ratio between deer bone and diet in terms of a strontium/calcium index was calculated at 0204, which compares favourably with observed ratios reported for other mammals. Prehistoric white-tailed deer are used in the analysis of two Late Archaic sites in the midwestern U.S.A. The strontium levels in deer can be used as a baseline for comparison between sites. The prehistoric subsistence patterns are generally comparable, with hunting accounting for the bulk of the diet.     

Prehistoric hunting pressure estimated by the age composition of excavated sika deer (Cervus Nippon) using the annual layer of tooth cement

Age of excavated sika deer was determined not only by the cement-annuli method but also by the observation method to avoid unnecessary destruction of archaeological materials. The observation method is based on tooth replacement, wear index and the appearance of cervical lines on the molar teeth. Stepwise discriminant analysis was used to establish a criterion for the age determination of excavated mandibles. Then the annulation method was carried out for well-preserved specimens older than 3–5 years. The age composition of excavated deer mandibles seems to have changed through the Jomon Period. Age composition at the Torihama sites (the Early Jomon Period) was characterized by an abundance of aged individuals, showing a close similarity with that of the recent deer population under protected conditions. Deer from the Kidosaku and Yahagi sites (the Late Jomon Period) and the SambuUbayama site (the Latest Jomon Period) were composed mainly of deer younger than 5 years, which seems to correspond to that of the recent hunted population living under natural conditions in Hokkaido. These data suggest that the hunting pressure increased during the Late and Latest Jomon Periods and compares with the pressures on recent hunted populations of sika deer.     

Red deer land use in the northern highlands. Part 1: The resource

The exploitation of natural populations of red deer forms an important land use in large areas of the Scottish Highlands, especially the highest and most rugged parts of the region. Despite its areal significance red deer land use has been the subject of very little geographical investigation.

The ecology of red deer is an important factor in the Highland land use situation, and environmental controls on the characteristics of the red deer resource are strong. Wide spatial variations exist both in deer population densities and in stag weights. Considerable difficulties arise in regard to the availability of comprehensive population and weight data, but despite these difficulties certain areas, particularly in the borderlands between Inverness‐shire and Ross‐shire, stand out as the most productive deer areas.     

Dama Dentition: A New Tooth Eruption and Wear Method for Assessing the Age of Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

Reliable ageing techniques for wild animals are notoriously challenging to develop because of the scarcity of sizeable collections of known‐age specimens. Without such techniques it is difficult to reconstruct hunting patterns, which is a significant problem for the examination of assemblages from pre‐farming cultures. This paper presents a new method, based on mandibular tooth eruption and wear, for assessing the age of fallow deer. The method was developed from a large collection (n = 156) of known‐age Dama dama specimens, has been blind tested by members of the zooarchaeological community and represents a user‐friendly system with the potential to generate large compatible datasets through which the dynamics of human–Dama relationships can be examined. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The use of dental crown heights for constructing age profiles of red deer and similar species in archaeological samples

The analysis of dental crown heights in a sample of known-age American Red deer (known in America as “elk”) has permitted the derivation of formulae for the prediction of age from crown height. The ages predicted from crown heights closely approximate true ages, when both predicted and true ages are grouped into broad, but still useful age classes. At least for the Red deer or “elk” dP₄, M₂ and M₃, age prediction formulae very similar to the empirically derived ones may be constructed by making certain hypothetical assumptions about the nature and rate of crown attrition. This suggests that these assumptions may be used to construct age prediction formulae in situations where an empirical relationship between age and crown height has not been or cannot be established. With certain provisos noted in the text, the age prediction formulae that result will probably provide reasonably reliable age profiles for the numerous ungulate species whose teeth are similar in structure to those of Red deer or “elk” and at least as hypsodont.     

Estimation of age at death of sika deer (Cervus nippon) from an archaeological site based on radiographs of mandibular molariform tooth development

The development of permanent premolar and molar teeth was examined in mandibular radiographs from wild sika deer (Cervus nippon) of known ages (74 males, 66 females, 4 unknown; age range 1–54 months) from Hyogo Prefecture. Tooth development was scored according to the method described by Brown & Chapman (1991a, b). Stage‐specific scores for all molar and premolar teeth were summed, and simple cubic regression analysis was used to analyse the relationship between the total score and age in months. Our analysis showed a strong cubic correlation between the total score and chronological age in months. The equation obtained from this analysis was used to estimate age within a 95% prediction interval in seven archaeological specimens from the Asahi archaeological site in central Japan. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bone ultrastructure in the antler of the extinct Giant Irish Deer (Megaceros)

The skull and antlers of an extinct Giant Irish deer (Megaceros) were retrieved from a bog in central Ireland. Cancellous bone from the antlers was examined ultrastructurally by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The ultrastructural integrity of bone cells (osteocytes) was remarkable with features such as mitochondria and Golgi elements being clearly demonstrated. Radiocarbon dating indicated that the specimen was around 11 000 years BP . The demonstration of ultrastructure in bone cells of this extinct deer suggests that palaeontological specimens found in bog environments are potentially useful for the ultrastructural investigation of not only the extracellular matrix but, significantly, of the cell itself.     

Comparative human and deer (Odocoileus virginianus) taphonomy at the Richards site,Ohio

The Richards site is attributed to the Philo phase of the Fort Ancient tradition of the Ohio Valley area. Human skeletal material from the site shows evidence of peri‐ and post‐mortem taphonomic changes, including cut marks, burning and fracturing. Previous analyses have discussed explanations for these changes, including secondary burial, ritual destruction and cannibalism. Researchers have theorised that, allowing for differences in anatomy among species, humans and animals butchered for the same purpose (consumption) will show similar patterns of taphonomic changes associated with butchery. The human remains at the Richards Site were disposed in general midden pits containing mixed cultural debris and faunal remains. White‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) constitutes approximately 60% of all the faunal bone, indicating that it was a major food resource. To test a cannibalism explanation, a comparative analysis of human‐induced taphonomy in human and deer skeletal remains was performed, using chi‐square and odds ratio tests. If humans were being used as a food resource, the pattern of butchery seen would mirror that of the deer. The analysis described here compares the patterns of treatment and disposal of human and deer skeletal elements at the Richards site, to test whether both species were used as food resources. Similar types of evidence for human‐induced taphonomic changes, including cutting, chopping, burning and breakage, can be seen in both species. However, results indicate that, in general, human remains show much more evidence of perimortem treatment than do deer remains. In fact, the common odds ratio for perimortem treatment in all bones is 3.25, indicating that a human bone is 3.25 times as likely as a deer bone to be affected by burning, cutting or chopping. This probably indicates that perimortem treatment of humans was greater than that necessary simply for butchering for consumption. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fishing in the Northern Isles: a Case Study Based on Fish Bone Assemblages from Two Multi-period Sites on Sanday,Orkney

Abstract

We describe six cervid bones — a distal humerus, three distal tibiae, and two astragali — from two Roman sites, São Pedro Fronteira and Torre de Palma, in the Alentejo of Portugal. They are identified on morphological and osteometric grounds as fallow deer, Dama dama. They represent the earliest Holocene evidence for this species in Portugal, and it is suggested that, like the camel, the Romans were responsible for its spread within their Empire. While remains of this animal have not so far been reported in any Moslem period assemblages, there is documentary evidence for the existence of fallow deer in Portugal in the 12th and 13th centuries AD, although the possibility that fallow deer disappeared with the end of Roman rule should be considered.     

Excavations at Lismahon,Co. Down

Abstract

There is a Growing recognition that introduced species are direct records of cultural activity and that studies of their biogeography have the potential to tell us about patterns of human migration, trade and even ideology. In England the fallow deer (Dama dama dama) is one of the earliest and most successful animal introductions, whose establishment has traditionally been attributed to the Normans. However, recent investigations of Old English place names have raised the possibility that the term *pohha/pocca relates to fallow deer, suggesting that the species was widely established in the Anglo-Saxon landscape. This suggestion deserves serious consideration as it has implications for our understanding both of AngloSaxon society and the impact of the Norman Conquest. This paper therefore presents a critical review of the literary, iconographic, place-name and zooarchaeological evidence for fallow deer in early medieval England and beyond.