Transition from hunting to animal husbandry in Southern,Western and Eastern Finland: new dated osteological evidence

The beginning of animal husbandry in Finland is one of the most debated topics in Finnish archaeology. For this study a total of 69 bone materials from archaeological sites in Southern, Western and Eastern Finland, dating from the Middle Neolithic to the Early Metal Period, were analysed: 52 represented identifiable animal bones. These data were complemented with those from previously analysed bone materials. A total of 19 domestic animal bones were radiocarbon-dated to determine their connection with a particular cultural period. However, 13 of them proved to belong to the historical and not the prehistoric period, emphasizing the importance of radiocarbon-dating and context awareness when interpreting prehistoric bone materials. Among the radiocarbon-dated material were the oldest dated sheep, cattle and horse bones in Finland. The oldest radiocarbon-dated domestic animal bone in Finland, from sheep or goat, derives from the Late Stone Age Kiukainen Culture site, while cattle and horse bones date to the Bronze Age. This is later than expected. However, the available material does not exclude the possibility that some animal husbandry was practised in Finland earlier. Nevertheless, domestic animal bones are rare in samples dated to the cultural periods studied, while hunting and fishing represented important subsistence activities.     

Fluvial transport of bovid long bones fragmented by the feeding activities of hominins and carnivores

This study explores the hydraulic transportability of bovid long bone fragments created through hominin and carnivore carcass consumption in order to determine the effect of fluvial transport on the incidences of hominin- and carnivore-induced bone surface modifications. Transportability was determined using an oval race track flume and 311 long bone fragments from modern control collections of hominin- and carnivore-modified bone. Results show that the fluvial transport of long bone fragments is predicted by animal size class and bone specimen size, as measured by maximum cortical thickness, maximum length, and maximum width. All of these variables can be measured on fossil specimens. Long bone portion (midshaft, near-epiphysis, and epiphysis) does not affect transport and hydraulic transport does not substantially modify the incidences of tooth, percussion, and cut marking in transported or lag assemblages in low energy fluvial environments. Implications of this study are: 1) animal size classes, and cortical thickness, length, and width of long bone fragments can be used to identify fluvial winnowing in fossil assemblages; 2) analyses concerning the relative timing of hominin and carnivore carcass consumption based on the proportions of long bone fragments bearing tooth, percussion, or cut marks can be meaningfully applied to fossil assemblages deposited in low-energy fluvial environments.     

Understanding complex fragmented assemblages of human and animal remains: a fully integrated approach

Fragmented, co-mingled assemblages of human and animal bones are not uncommon in archaeological deposits, particularly in prehistoric contexts. It is suggested, firstly, that standard approaches to studying the human material do not lend themselves to the complete understanding of such contexts, secondly, that the application of some techniques more common to zooarchaeology are of particular value in understanding such human material, and, thirdly, that fully integrated, identical recording systems for both human and animal material allow for much greater understanding of the relative peri-mortem, depositional and post-depositional histories of human and animal remains in these complex deposits. Such a fully integrated method of recording, that permits direct comparison of the patterning in the human and animal assemblages, is outlined. These methods encompass issues of identification, ageing, quantification, fragmentation, bone fracture analysis, post-depositional taphonomy and evidence of human-induced butchery/trauma and other modifications. The approach is illustrated with examples drawn from the study of the bone deposits at the Middle Bronze Age ritual enclosure of Velim Skalka, Czech Republic.     

Chemical changes in buried animal bone: Data from a postmedieval assemblage

Macroscopic chemical analysis of animal bone recovered from dated excavation contexts of known pH from Castle Bromwich Hall, West Midlands, UK, allows an assessment of the rate and effects of bone decomposition, and the evaluation of current models of chemical decay. The results show great variation, and it is suggested that factors such as mechanical disturbance have a more significant effect on the differential destruction of excavated bone assemblages than chemical decay. The implications of this conclusion for the attempted reconstruction of past faunas, diet and behaviour are summarized, recommending caution in the acceptance of assemblages as unbiased samples.     

Ritual Patterns in the Deposits of Fauna Associated with Iberian Burials: The Necropolis of El Poblado During the Fourth to Second Centuries bc (Archaeological Complex of Coimbra del Barranco Ancho,Murcia)

The study of grave goods, including animal deposits, offers a deeper understanding of social issues. This paper presents the results of the analysis of human and animal bone samples from the Iberian necropolis of El Poblado, Murcia. The examination focusses on 18 deposits of ovicaprids radii and ulnae, mostly of the left side, that were derived from 14 cremation tombs of the 74 studied. By considering the human and animal remains together, it is possible to highlight differences in the rituals of certain graves and variations in animal symbolism related to human sex and age. This provides a new understanding of the social and cultural differentiation that existed in the Iberian communities of this period. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) as an Accumulator of Bones in Cave‐like Environments

Identifying the behavioural patterns of bone collecting animals is a crucial aspect of taphonomic studies. Although many studies have established criteria for identifying animal‐collected or animal‐modified bones, very few papers describe the distinguishing features of fox‐made bone assemblages. The bone assemblage collected in an inactive underground stone mine in Potok‐Senderki (Poland) is diagnostic of a red fox (Vulpes vulpes) den. This site provides an ideal opportunity to develop an understanding of the bone collecting behaviour of red foxes in cave‐like environments. This study showed that bones collected by red foxes are concentrated in clusters. The bones represent a broad spectrum of local fox prey species, with most bones showing the marks of gnawing. Each cluster may contain from <10 to >100 bones. Furthermore, the long axes of the bones in clusters frequently show specific orientation. The analysis of bones at this site might make an important contribution towards the establishment of baseline criteria for the identification and evaluation of fox‐accumulated bone assemblages. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Whales, Walruses, and Elephants: Artisans in Ivory, Baleen, and Other Skeletal Materials in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Amsterdam

Hard animal tissues obtained from whales, walruses, and elephants are baleen, whale bone, walrus ivory, walrus baculum, and elephant ivory. Objects of these materials were manufactured by artisans in Amsterdam in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. New archaeological and historical evidence show the import and importance if these materials. The importance of baleen is evident from historical sources. Whale bone and walrus penis bone were only used occasionally. The use of walrus ivory appeared to be of minor importance in comparison to elephant ivory. The Dutch elephant ivory trade in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is evident in historical and archaeological sources.     

Bone diagenesis in the European Holocene II: taphonomic and environmental considerations

We have applied cluster analysis to mercury intrusion porosimetry data from 219 archaeological bones (121 human and 98 animal) and soil chemistry data from 219 accompanying soil samples (1 per bone sample), to investigate the influence of soil chemistry on bone preservation. The samples chosen for the study were obtained from sites ranging in time from the pre-modern to the Mesolithic and were representative of burial environments across Europe (from the Baltic to the Mediterranean). These results represent the single largest database for archaeological bone preservation in the European Holocene to date and demonstrate the potential for large-scale diagenetic studies to help develop long term preservation strategies for our European heritage. Despite the variety of sites and environments, bones could be categorised into only four main diagenetic types. Furthermore, soil chemistry appears to significantly affect only one type of preservation, the pathway characterised by loss of mineral. In neutral to basic soils, taphonomy and in particular the differences between the treatment of human and animal remains, becomes the dominating factor in determining preservation. Using these results, strategies for heritage management of archaeological sites can be suggested; grouping sites into those requiring immediate excavation and those where in situ preservation is viable.     

Detection of blood proteins in ancient human bone using ELISA: A comparative study of the survival of IgG and albumin

ABSTRACT The immunological identification of species-specific blood proteins in skeletal remains has an important role in the reconstruction of ancient dietary, ritual and domestic behaviour. However, which protein provides the most suitable target for such work has not been considered previously, and the present investigation was carried out on human bone to assess the relative merits of IgG and albumin. Extracts of bone from 31 individuals (from the English Civil War, medieval, Early Saxon, Roman, Iron Age and Bronze Age periods) were tested by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using monoclonal antibodies. Albumin was detected in 23 of the 31 skeletons, including those from the Iron and Bronze Ages, whereas IgG was identified in only one; this difference was very highly significant (P < 0.0005, χ² 30.0). The better detection rate for albumin was thought to be due to its higher original blood level, inherent differences in survival pattern being considered unlikely. Testing the same extract for both proteins in the same assay system ensured that any effects due to soil factors, burial conditions, physical integrity of the bone, chronological age, amount of original specimen, method of analysis and type of reagent were the same for each part of the study, thus permitting a valid comparison of antigen survival to be made. Control samples, including fresh and ancient animal bone extracts and human and animal sera, confirmed that the results were consistent and specific, with no cross-reactivity between human and animal material, and that as little as 10 ng of protein was detectable. In summary, the investigation compared the suitability of IgG and albumin for osteoarchaeological studies using a highly specific, sensitive and versatile ELISA; the results showed that albumin was a far better target molecule for such work and that it can survive in ancient bone for long periods of time.     

Experimental effects of bone size and temperature on bone diagenesis

In the ground, bone undergoes chemical and physical changes which affect its preservation. This fact has important implications for dating and other analytical procedures involving bone, as well as faunal analysis where differential preservation of bones of different species may affect conclusions regarding the relative significance of an animal to the economy of a given society. The diagenic processes in bone range from minor changes in the bone protein to complete structural and chemical breakdown.Using fresh cow bone, we conducted laboratory experiments which simulate the effect of temperature and bone size on the rate and nature of bone disintegration in archaeological sites. Temperature influences the rate of chemical change, and bone size and density affect the accessibility of the molecular constituents of bone to extrinsic chemical reactions. These findings clarify the importance of two well-known concepts in bone taphonomy. (1) The rate of chemical breakdown in bone tissues is related to the proximity of a given unit of tissue to the bone surface. This means that, in archaeological bone samples, tissue near the surface may be different chemically from tissue away from the surface and great care is necessary in choosing and preparing bone samples for analytical procedures. (2) In general, small bones are not as well preserved as large bones, therefore small animals are likely to be underrepresented in faunal assemblages.     

Hunter‐gatherer use of small animal food resources: coprolite evidence

Faunal remains are commonly found in coprolites and provide direct evidence of animal consumption. An evaluation of hunter‐gatherer coprolites from the Southwest US shows that animal bone in coprolites can be used to assess patterns of hunting, food preparation, and general importance of small animals in diet. This is demonstrated by a comparison of faunal assemblages between two hunter‐gatherer sites with respect to small animal hunting strategies. The sites are Dust Devil Cave on the Colorado Plateau, an Archaic winter habitation, and Hinds Cave, a warm season Archaic habitation in the lower Pecos of Texas. The results indicate that small animal hunting varied regionally and seasonally. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Archaeometry meets archaeozoology: Viking Haithabu and medieval Schleswig reconsidered

The two archaeofaunal assemblages from Haithabu (Viking period) and Schleswig (early Middle Age) belong to the largest such bone complexes ever recovered in Northern Europe. More than 800,000 animal bones were recovered from both sites in the course of the last three decades and investigated by traditional archaeozoological methods. More recently and independently from the latter, stable isotopic ratios of the light elements carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen were analyzed on a total of 440 animal bone finds representing 67 vertebrate species from both sites producing a data set comprising 1,760 individual isotopic ratios. In addition, stable strontium isotopic ratios were obtained from 68 animal teeth and bones of four species. In this paper, an attempt is made to synthesize archaeozoological and archaeometrical data on a larger scale. By becoming familiar with the specific potential of each method, we raise questions concerning not only palaeobiodiversity and palaeoecology of fish and birds in the area, trophic webs, and prey/predator relationships, but also human meat-provisioning, import of animals and animal products, and the reconstruction of hunting areas. This transdisciplinary approach led to an improvement in the quality of our interpretations and the validation of previously confirmed and/or rejected assumptions. It is still too early to expect answers to all these questions, but we are convinced that, in attempting to do so, the potential of coordinating such methods for future research will become evident, and we therefore strongly recommend an intensification of archaeometric analyses of archaeofaunal assemblages.     

Integrating Stable Isotope and Zooarchaeological Analyses in Historical Archaeology: A Case Study from the Urban Nineteenth-Century Commonwealth Block Site,Melbourne, Australia

This paper presents the first use of bone collagen stable isotope analyses for the purpose of reconstructing historical animal husbandry and trade practices in Australia. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of 51 domesticate and commensal specimens demonstrate that meats consumed at the mid to late nineteenth-century Commonwealth Block site in Melbourne derived from animals with a diverse range of isotopic signatures. Potential factors contributing to this diversity including animal trade and variability in local animal husbandry practices are discussed. From these results we suggest that stable isotope-based paleodietary reconstructions have significant potential to illuminate a variety of human-animal relations in Australia’s historical period as well as other New World contexts.     

A Reappraisal of Dinas Powys: Local Exchange and Specialized Livestock Production in 5th- to 7th-century Wales

RESULTS OF THE analysis of a previously unstudied group of animal bone from Dinas Powys are tested against the original report and subsequent interpretations. Assumptions inherent in the initial sampling policy and analysis are discussed. The present interpretation explores the concept of social production in early medieval Wales.     

Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers,Sibudu Cave,South Africa

Recently discovered bone implements from Middle Stone Age (MSA) deposits at Sibudu Cave, South Africa, confirm the existence of a bone tool industry for the Howiesons Poort (HP) technocomplex. Previously, an isolated bone point from Klasies River provided inconclusive evidence. This paper describes three bone tools: two points and the end of a polished spatula-shaped piece, from unequivocal HP layers at Sibudu Cave (with ages greater than ∼61 ka). Comparative microscopic and morphometric analysis of the Sibudu specimens together with bone tools from southern African Middle and Later Stone Age (LSA) deposits, an Iron Age occupation, nineteenth century Bushman hunter-gatherer toolkits, and bone tools used experimentally in a variety of tasks, reveals that the Sibudu polished piece has use-wear reminiscent of that on bones experimentally used to work animal hides. A slender point is consistent with a pin or needle-like implement, while a larger point, reminiscent of the single specimen from Peers Cave, parallels large un-poisoned bone arrow points from LSA, Iron Age and historical Bushman sites. Additional support for the Sibudu point having served as an arrow tip comes from backed lithics in the HP compatible with this use, and the recovery of older, larger bone and lithic points from Blombos Cave, interpreted as spear heads. If the bone point from the HP layers at Sibudu Cave is substantiated by future discoveries, this will push back the origin of bow and bone arrow technology by at least 20,000 years, and corroborate arguments in favour of the hypothesis that crucial technological innovations took place during the MSA in Africa.     

灵宝西坡遗址动物骨骼的收集与整理

本文介绍了河南灵宝西坡遗址动物骨骼的收集与整理过程 ,并重点对收集方法和埋藏因素对动物遗存的影响作了评估。结果表明 ,自然和生物因素对骨骼埋藏过程的影响较小 ,而人为因素的影响比较显著。不同的收集方法对出土骨骼的绝对数量和重量有直接影响 ,但用相对比例分析主要动物的骨骼发现率 ,能够减小不同收集方法造成的差异     

Bone weight,meat yield estimates and cod (Gadus morhua): A preliminary study of the weight method

Past approaches to the Weight Method (use of the weight of excavated bone assemblages to evaluate the relative potential meat yield of the animals from which they came) are critically reviewed. They do not account for both inter-taxon and intra-taxon variability in the relationship between bone weight and total body or soft tissue weight. Critics of the Weight Method have assumed that these problems are insurmountable. It is argued here that they can be overcome practically. Solutions lie in the integration of classic Weight Method approaches, which assume a consistent ratio of bone weight to body weight between different taxonomic and size groups, with the understanding of animal scaling provided by studies of skeletal mass allometry. Allometric equations derived from original data (regarding cod, Gadus morhua) and available from published sources (regarding mammals and birds) are used to illustrate this argument. Three practical approaches to the Weight Method are suggested and briefly explored, using bone weight data from Earls' Bu, a Norse site in Orkney, Scotland, as a case study.     

河北省石家庄市石邑城遗址出土动物遗存的初步研究

文章以石邑城遗址2017年出土的动物骨骼遗存为研究对象,应用种属鉴定、量化统计、年龄结构分析等方法讨论了石邑城遗址先民对动物资源的利用模式;并结合发掘区是手工业区的性质探讨了石邑城遗址先民制骨手工业的生产方式及其特征。