Variation in the taphonomic effect of scavengers in semi‐arid Australia linked to rainfall and the El Niño Southern Oscillation

Scavenging is one of the primary taphonomic processes shaping the final composition of fossil faunal assemblages. The taphonomic effect of scavengers is variable and must be understood in the context of the causes of that variation. In this study, we investigated relationships between the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), variable rainfall and scavenging on 20–40 kg mammal carcasses in semi‐arid New South Wales over four years. Following periods of above‐average rainfall (coincident with the La Niña phase of the ENSO), there was an increased availability of non‐carrion food and scavenging activity was moderate. Following below‐average rainfall (coincident with the El Niño phase of the ENSO), foraging options diminished, leading to a greater importance of carrion in the diet of scavengers and a resultant increase in carcass disturbance, transport and destruction by scavengers. Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were the most taphonomically significant scavengers in the study. Australian ravens (Corvus coronoides) and wedge‐tailed eagles (Aquila audax) were active scavengers throughout the period of the study, but had little impact on bone survival. Lace monitors (Varanus varius) also fed mostly on soft tissue and were only present seasonally. We found that climate variability in the form of short‐term oscillation can result in significant variation in the impact of scavengers on carcasses and may be an important consideration when evaluating site formation scenarios and biases in fossil faunal assemblages. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Neolithic cremation in south‐east Arabia: archaeological and anthropological observations at FAY‐NE10 in the Emirate of Sharjah (UAE)

Small fragments of cremated human bone, clearly representing numerous individuals, were found in a stratified Neolithic context in a small cave at Jebel Faya in the Central Region of the Emirate of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. With radiocarbon dates between 6500 and 5800 cal BC, they are among the earliest well‐documented cases of cremations in south‐west Asia. Taxonomic identification of the small burned bone fragments is based on morphological and histological analysis. The deposits are to date the oldest human remains found in south‐east Arabia and represent a phase during the Middle Neolithic for which no other types of burials have yet been documented.     

Re‐equilibration of fluid inclusions in diagenetic‐anchizonal rocks of the Ciñera‐Matallana coal basin (NW Spain)

Thermally re‐equilibrated fluid inclusions are reported in natural fissure quartz (qtz1) from polymineralic veins in the diagenetic‐anchizonal clastic sedimentary rocks of the Ciñera‐Matallana coal basin (Variscan, NW Spain). Euhedral quartz formed during early fissure opening from an immiscible fluid mixture composed of a low salinity aqueous solution and a CH₄‐rich vapour phase, at temperatures of about 110–120°C and pressures ranging from 15 to 56 MPa. Five textural types of re‐equilibration are recognised in progressive order of inclusion modification: scalloped, hairy, annular‐ring shaped, haloes and decrepitation clusters. These textures resulted from a combination of brittle fracturing and dissolution and re‐precipitation of quartz, with preferential loss of water. The thermal peak was short‐lived, but was high enough to induce extensive decrepitation of fluid inclusions in vein quartz throughout the entire basin. Enhanced temperatures can be related to the intrusion of diorites in the basin. Careful analysis of textural features in fluid inclusions from diagenetic and very low‐grade metamorphism environments constitutes a useful tool for recording basin thermal history.     

Bone reactions on a pliocene cetacean rib indicate short‐term survival of predation event

There is little osteological evidence of non‐lethal predation events in the archaeological or vertebrate paleontological record. A small section of Pliocene cetacean rib collected from the Yorktown Formation within the PCS Phosphate Mine (formerly Lee Creek Mine), Aurora, North Carolina, U.S.A., shows evidence of this kind of trophic interaction. In this case study, we offer a diagnosis of bone traumatic pathology in which three bone‐forming lesions on the partial rib are interpreted as the reaction to a bite inflicted by a macro‐predator, the first such report from a marine environment. In addition to the three well‐defined lesions, a thin layer of woven bone covers much of the remaining cortical bone. The combination of the three bone‐forming lesions and the thin layer of woven bone suggest the presence of an inflammatory process almost certainly caused by infection secondary to the trauma. Survival following the traumatic event was probably less than 6 weeks. The Neogene chondrichthyan fauna from this locality preserves several large predators, including Carcharocles megalodon, Carcharodon carcharias, Isurus xiphidon and Parotodus benedeni, which were all capable, at least in terms of their size, of having bitten the cetacean. Although most of the odontocetes known from the Yorktown Formation were too small to have inflicted this wound, some of the physeterids may have been large enough to have caused the lesions on the partial rib. This evidence of predation in Pliocene whale bone raises the possibility of similar lesions being found in whale bone recovered from archaeological sites. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sexual dimorphism in diaphyseal cross‐sectional shape in the medieval Muslim population of Écija,Spain, and Anglo‐Saxon Great Chesterford,UK

Differences in adult male and female activity patterns may influence levels of sexual dimorphism in physical dimensions, including the cross‐sectional shape of long bone diaphyses. Previous studies of archaeological populations have demonstrated significant differences in diaphyseal shape between males and females. In this study, dimorphism in external diaphyseal shape of upper and lower limb bones (reflected in indices of external diaphyseal diameters), and bilateral asymmetry in these indices, were examined in two medieval populations: Muslim Écija (Spain) and Anglo‐Saxon Great Chesterford (UK). Attempts were made to relate observed patterns to documentary and other osteological evidence for differences in male and female activity patterns. While few significant differences in upper limb bone cross‐sectional shape were observed in either population, significant differences in shape were found in the lower limb diaphyses at Écija at the femoral midshaft and tibial foramen and midshaft levels, and at the tibial midshaft for Great Chesterford. Comparison with published data suggests that these differences are marked for Écija, and perhaps fairly high for Great Chesterford compared with other populations with an agriculture‐based economy. This is consistent with documentary and osteological evidence suggesting marked gender differences in behaviour in medieval Muslim Spain. No significant differences in bilateral asymmetry were found, but the effects of small sample size cannot be ruled out. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Urban small vertebrate taphonomy: a case study from Anglo–Scandinavian York

Sampling of deposits at the Queens Hotel site, York, produced a substantial number of small terrestrial vertebrate remains from the Anglo–Scandinavian features. By studying bone surface modification, fragmentation and skeletal completeness as taphonomic indicators, it was possible to demonstrate that the assemblage had resulted from two very different modes of accumulation and deposition. Refuse pits situated within the boundaries of the tenements had acted as accumulators of the fragmented and abraded small mammal and amphibian bones that existed as a sub‐surface death assemblage within the local environment. In contrast, the excellent preservation and skeletal completeness of numerous frogs recovered from the basal fill of a wooden well could be accounted for by their direct entry into the burial environment as a result of pit‐fall trapping. This paper also discusses the implications that the temporal and spatial variation in deposition demonstrated by the micro‐faunal remains has for the reconstruction of local ecological and environmental conditions within this site, and for other such sites. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Bone weight: new reference values based on a modern Portuguese identified skeletal collection

Skeletal weight and/or weight of the different bones of the human skeleton are currently used in a wide range of applications such as archaeological cremations and forensics. Still, few reference values are available that compare the mean weights for the different skeletal parts. In this paper we present new reference values for total skeletal weight, including the weight of the different skeletal bones based on a modern Portuguese Identified Skeletal Collection (CEI) curated in the Museum of Anthropology of the University of Coimbra (Portugal). The mean weight of the entire skeleton for the CEI pooled sample is 3323.8 ± 779.6 g. Sex and age differences were investigated. As expected, males display heavier bones, at a statistically significant level. The mean weight of the male skeletons is 3850 g, and 2797.6 g for the female sample. Age differences were found, especially for the female samples in the 29–39 versus 50–59 and/or >60 age groups, probably as a consequence of age‐related bone loss in post‐menopausal women. For the male sample, no clear age‐related trend was observed but for the unexpected result that the second highest bone weight recorded is in the oldest age group (>60 years). This could result from high mechanical loadings and thus greater bone robusticy and amount of cortical bone. The percentage of weight of the different parts of the skeleton was also calculated. These new values can be quite useful in the study of very fragmentary and/or commingled human remains, recovered from historic or forensic contexts, since the complete identification, by side, of the remains is not necessary. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sub‐micron spongiform porosity is the major ultra‐structural alteration occurring in archaeological bone

Total pore volume and pore size distribution are indicators of the degree of post‐mortem modification of bone. Direct measurements of pore size distribution in archaeological bones using mercury intrusion porosimetry (HgIP) and back scattered scanning electron microscopy (BSE‐SEM) reveal a common pattern in the changes seen in degraded bone as compared to modern samples. The estimates of pore size distribution from HgIP and direct measurement from the BSE‐SEM images show remarkable correspondence. The coupling of these two independent approaches has allowed the diagenetic porosity changes in human archaeological bone in the >0.01 µm range to be directly imaged, and their relationship to pre‐existing physiological pores to be explored. The increase in porosity in the archaeological bones is restricted to two discrete pore ranges. The smaller of these two ranges (0.007–0.1 µm) lies in the range of the collagen fibril (0.1 µm diameter) and is presumably formed by the loss of collagen, whereas the larger pore size distribution is evidence of direct microbial alteration of the bone. HgIP has great potential for the characterization of microbial and chemical alteration of bone. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anthropological and physicochemical investigation of the burnt remains of Tomb IX in the ‘Sa Figu’ hypogeal necropolis (Sassari,Italy) – Early Bronze Age

Excavations carried out in Tomb IX of the hypogeic necropolis of ‘Sa Figu’, near the village of Ittiri (Sassari, Italy), supplied burnt human bone remains and pottery unambiguously referred to the Early Bronze Age (characterised by the local culture of ‘Bonnannaro’). Besides the anthropological study, we have investigated and evaluated the possibility of a funerary cremation practice in Sardinian pre‐history, a subject that has previously not been considered from a scientific point of view. Making use of a calibration procedure based on X‐ray diffraction (XRD) line‐broadening analysis, related to the microstructural properties, it was possible to estimate the combustion temperature to which the fragmented bones were subjected. It was found that the studied bones reached temperatures varying from 400°C up to a maximum of 850°C. This spread of values suggested inhomogeneous combustion of the bones, which seems compatible with funerary cremation practices. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Well preserved non‐collagenous extracellular matrix proteins in ancient human bone and teeth

Ancient bones in a good preservation state, ascertained by microscopic techniques, conserve extracellular matrix proteins over thousands of years. With new techniques, intact extracellular matrix proteins from ancient bones and teeth are extracted and separated by one‐dimensional and two‐dimensional electrophoresis. Proteins were identified in Western blots by special antibodies against different human extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules of bone. We have confirmed different types of ECM human bone molecules such as osteonectin, osteopontin, and alkaline phosphatase with specific antibodies in human bone samples from different age groups. Additionally, we selected bone samples from different cultural time periods, such as the Middle Ages, the Bronze Age and the Late Pre‐Pottery Neolithic Phase (PPNB), and teeth from individuals from the Early Middle Ages and from the Late PPNB. The survival of intact extracellular matrix proteins in ancient bones and teeth dating from recent times to the Late PPNB, and reliable techniques to identify these proteins, present a great challenge to further research. A Match Set with PD‐Quest 7.2 shows that only 16% of protein spots in the teeth are also found in the bone of the same individual. In combination with the results of macro‐ and microscopic investigation, biochemical techniques will help us in obtaining a better understanding of bone and teeth in health and disease. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pick the Right Pocket. Sub‐sampling of Bone Sections to Investigate Diagenesis and DNA Preservation

Many archaeological bones display a heterogeneous degradation pattern. Highly degraded bones could contain pockets of well‐preserved bone, harbouring good quality DNA. This dichotomy may explain why the relationships between global bone preservation parameters such as histological integrity, bone mineral crystallinity or collagen yield, and bulk DNA preservation/amplification success rate have been found to be at best, weak to moderate. In this pilot study, we explore whether or not a more localised approach will highlight a stronger relationship between diagenetic parameters and DNA preservation. This study includes a detailed histological characterisation of bone diagenesis in sub‐areas of three bone samples. Regions of the same bone, which displayed differential degrees of preservation or type of diagenesis were sampled for further analysis and both genetic (small scale Illumina MiSeq sequencing) and chemical (Fourier‐transform infrared spectrometric analysis) analyses were performed. The aim was to investigate how bone diagenetic processes relate to DNA preservation at a higher resolution than in previous studies. This is key in order to improve DNA analytical success rates. The expected relationship between bone and DNA preservation (retrieved endogenous DNA) was observed and the results corroborate previous work that DNA preservation is linked to the integrity of bone collagen and mineral. The results further suggest that non‐biological diagenetic alterations such as etching and the presence of mineral infiltrations and inclusions have a negative effect on DNA preservation/extraction. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

CT and micro‐CT analysis of a case of Paget's disease (osteitis deformans) in the Grant skeletal collection

This paper presents a case study in which Paget's disease of bone is differentially diagnosed in an individual from the Grant skeletal collection using non‐destructive computed tomography (CT) and micro‐computed tomography (micro‐CT) analyses of the pubis, in addition to plain film radiography and macroscopic examination. In archaeological and modern osteological samples diagnosis frequently relies on macroscopic examination, plain film radiography and histological examination of bone samples. CT and micro‐CT modalities provide researchers with a non‐destructive view of the internal structure of bone unhampered by the superimposition that is characteristic of plain film radiographs. Given the importance of the increased cortical and trabecular thickness in the differential diagnosis of Paget's disease, these techniques are ideal means by which to non‐destructively examine culturally‐sensitive and scientifically‐valuable human remains for signs of Paget's disease of bone. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hunter‐gatherer use of small animal food resources: coprolite evidence

Faunal remains are commonly found in coprolites and provide direct evidence of animal consumption. An evaluation of hunter‐gatherer coprolites from the Southwest US shows that animal bone in coprolites can be used to assess patterns of hunting, food preparation, and general importance of small animals in diet. This is demonstrated by a comparison of faunal assemblages between two hunter‐gatherer sites with respect to small animal hunting strategies. The sites are Dust Devil Cave on the Colorado Plateau, an Archaic winter habitation, and Hinds Cave, a warm season Archaic habitation in the lower Pecos of Texas. The results indicate that small animal hunting varied regionally and seasonally. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Skeletal and Surgical Evidence for Acute Osteomyelitis in Non‐Adult Individuals

Osteomyelitis is a non‐specific infection of the bone and bone marrow. In the past acute osteomyelitis (AO) led to high mortality especially in non‐adults. Nevertheless, its diagnosis in archaeological populations is rare. Documented individuals with known cause of death offer a unique opportunity to study this condition. This article aims to describe the bone lesions in non‐adults diagnosed with AO at the Coimbra University Hospital (CUH) and now belonging to the Coimbra Identified Skeletal Collection (CISC). Moreover, mortality rates and demographic profiles for individuals aged ≤18 years old and diagnosed with AO in the CUH, between 1923 and 1929, were also determined. The 5 (1%) non‐adults in the CISC with AO listed as cause of death were selected for this study, and their bones were analysed macroscopically and radiologically. The skeletal remains of one individual revealed a small area of new bone formation in the shaft of the left femur. Radiography of this bone showed a radio‐opaque area in the diaphysis. The other four individuals show evidence of surgical treatment, responsible for many cases of disability in the past. In the 7‐year period under analysis, 122 juveniles were diagnosed with osteomyelitis and admitted for surgery at the CUH, 43 (35.2%) of which were diagnosed with AO. Sixty‐five per cent of the cases of AO occurred between the ages of 8 and 15 years, with boys twice as frequently affected as girls, and lower limb bones were involved in 91% of AO cases. AO was responsible for 76.9% of the deaths. This study of pre‐antibiotic non‐adults may help to recognize skeletal signs of AO and their surgical treatment in unidentified skeletal remains. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Terminal Pleistocene Later Stone Age Human Remains from the Mlambalasi Rock Shelter,Iringa Region,Southern Tanzania

This paper introduces research at the Mlambalasi rock shelter in the Iringa Region of southern Tanzania. The deposits are composed of a historic and Iron Age occupation, a microlithic Holocene Later Stone Age (LSA), and then a macrolithic Late Pleistocene LSA. Middle Stone Age deposits are also present on the slope in front of the rock shelter. Excavations in A.D. 2002, 2006, and 2010 yielded fragmentary human remains as well as pottery, iron, stone tools, faunal bone, and glass and ostrich eggshell beads. Among the human remains, four individuals are present: two adults and a juvenile were found in the same LSA context, and another adult associated with the Iron Age/historic period. The most complete skeleton is an adult of indeterminate sex that was found in situ in an LSA deposit. Charcoal in proximity to the bone was AMS radiocarbon dated to 12,925 cal BC (OxA‐24620), which is consistent with radiocarbon dates on giant land snail shells from above and below the remains. The skeleton exhibits a series of pathological changes such as extensive dental wear and carious lesions, as well as damage most likely caused by termites, post‐mortem. The most striking aspect of this individual is its small size; stature and body mass estimations place it in the range of historic Khoesan from southern Africa. Consequently, this research adds to the discourse regarding the existence of small‐bodied people in the East African LSA. Findings from this new skeletal sample will contribute to studies of human biology and variation in Africa during the terminal Pleistocene and Holocene. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age‐at‐Death Estimates from a Disarticulated,Fragmented and Commingled Archaeological Battlefield Assemblage

Estimation of age‐at‐death is an important and challenging part of any investigation of human remains. Extensive research has been undertaken on this subject as demographic information contributes much to bioarchaeological and forensic work. Disarticulated, fragmentary and commingled human remains occur from a wide range of spatial and temporal contexts, and estimation of age‐at‐death can be particularly challenging in these collections. This study evaluated the impact of preservation on techniques that might be applied and their relative utility, using human remains from the site of the Smith's Knoll associated with the Battle of Stoney Creek, a War of 1812 collection from Ontario Canada with some supporting documentary evidence on age‐at‐death. Features assessed were the pubic symphysis, auricular surface and epiphyseal fusion in the innominate. An age‐at‐death estimate was produced for 16 out of 19 individuals considered; the highest minimum number of individuals (MNI) was 24 (right radius) from 2701 identifiable fragments. The pubic symphysis made no contribution to construction of a demographic profile, but as has been suggested previously epiphyseal fusion was useful in this respect. Results demonstrate that previous statements regarding preservation of the auricular surface and its utility in fragmented and poorly preserved collections need to be carefully evaluated. Although 129 fragments of innominate were recorded just one had an auricular surface and post auricular area that could be fully assessed. Transition Analysis was easier to apply than techniques developed previously, and findings from this study suggest that use of the forensic prior distribution could assist in assessment of battlefield assemblages. These results raise some valuable points that need to be considered in any future attempts to improve age‐at‐death estimates using the auricular surface, and important questions regarding expectations for estimation of age‐at‐death in disarticulated, fragmented and commingled collections of human bone. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cortical bone dynamics and age‐related osteopenia in a Longobard archaeological sample from three graveyards of the Veneto region (northeast Italy)

Since the contribution of Brothwell and co‐workers in early 1968, few studies have considered the cortical bone involution in European skeletal series of archaeological interest. The present study concerns the involutive process mechanisms and intra‐ and inter‐sexual variability in femurs of 66 adults belonging to three graveyards of the Longobard era excavated in the Vicenza province (northeast Italy). Cortical thickness and cortical and medullary areas were measured and a correlation matrix was generated for each sex and age class. Intra‐ and inter‐sexual variability were evaluated by two‐tailed t‐tests and a sexual dimorphism index. The results indicate a considerable difference between the sexes, with females showing an earlier and more marked cortical bone loss, as expected. Moreover, comparing the data with the scarce literature available, some discrepancies in cortical bone involution were found in populations with different patterns of adaptation, suggesting the need for further studies in this direction aimed at understanding bone environment dynamics. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

State‐of–the–art imaging in palaeopathology: the value of multislice computed tomography in visualizing doubtful cranial lesions

Non‐invasive imaging techniques are of great value in palaeopathology. Computed tomography (CT) is widely established to visualize changes in human remains that occurred both pre and post mortem. Since 1999 an advanced form of helical CT—so called Multislice‐CT (MSCT)—has become available for clinical purposes. We now present for the first time three historic cranial lesions of doubtful aetiology visualized by MSCT. Both original images and virtual reconstructions of the specimens are of high quality. In combination with peri‐lesional bone density measurements these images allow an improved assessment of aetiology. The cases presented are diagnosed by MSCT as being of intra vitam nature in two individuals and of post mortem character in one case. Time consuming post‐processing analysis and the still small number of scanners presently available may limit application of this new technique. Nevertheless, based on our preliminary results, we strongly recommend non‐invasive evaluation by MSCT to be used for non‐clinical purposes such as palaeopathological research. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Porotic hyperostosis in a Late Upper Palaeolithic skeleton (Villabruna 1, Italy)

Porotic hyperostosis (PH) is a well‐recognised skeletal indicator of physiological stress occurring during the early years of childhood growth. Although frequently found starting from the Neolithic, PH is poorly documented among earlier Palaeolithic hunter–gatherers. This study reports a case of PH in a Late Upper Palaeolithic skeleton (Villabruna 1) from northern Italy. Macroscopic and radiographic examinations of the skeleton show symmetric porotic lesions of the cranial vault, hair‐on‐end appearance, thinning of the cortical bone, diploic expansion and very slight cribra orbitalia (CO). All lesions are highly remodelled and suggest a condition suffered long before death. A differential diagnosis, carried out in order to discriminate between infectious and acquired conditions, points to anaemia as likely aetiology for the changes observed. Absence of postcranial involvement, lesion healing and survival to adulthood suggest a diagnosis of acquired anaemia. Among acquired anaemias, both dietary and infectious models are discussed in light of the individual's skeletal characteristics, as well as geographic location, paleoenvironmental data, subsistence modality and dietary information. The combined analysis of these data suggests that parasitic infestation resulted in megaloblastic anaemia in this individual. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.