Entheseal Changes in Free‐Ranging Versus Zoo Reindeer—Observing Activity Status of Reindeer

We evaluate whether entheseal changes (EC) can be used to reconstruct activity among reindeer to study its domestication. Humans influence reindeer activity patterns through corralling, which renders them less mobile than free‐ranging reindeer and through use as draught animals, which can result in overuse of certain muscles. There is also variation within free‐ranging reindeer in baseline activity levels due to environmental factors. Other sources of variation at entheses include age, sex, pathology, size, and genetic disposition. Here we examine if there are differences in the entheses between zoo versus free‐ranging reindeer. We recorded the entheses of reindeer long bones using a modified EC scoring system. Weight effects were accounted for by performing analyses separately for specimens under and over 95 kg, but unfortunately age information was lacking. We found that several flexor muscle insertion sites in the ulna were more developed among free‐ranging reindeer. This difference is likely due to feeding behaviour. The free‐ranging animals were digging for lichen from under the snow whereas the zoo reindeer were fed by their keepers. This difference in entheses, however, was found to be significant only among the heavier reindeer. Among the zoo reindeer, the insertion for Subscapularis muscle was more developed, possibly due to increased time spent immobile with the shoulder‐bracing muscle apparatus activated. This difference was significant among the heavier deer and nearly statistically significant among the lighter weight reindeer. Domesticated Siberian draught reindeer fell between zoo and free‐ranging reindeer in several tibial entheses. According to these results, some forelimb entheses may be useful to study differences in mobility and feeding patterns between groups of reindeer. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Vertebral Compression Fractures: Towards a Standard Scoring Methodology in Paleopathology

Vertebral compression fractures are the most common osteoporotic fractures in postmenopausal women. Notwithstanding, its clinical diagnosis remains ambiguous. In paleopathological studies, vertebral fractures and/or deformations are frequently disregarded. When observed, vertebral compression fractures are usually recorded without the support of quantifiable and comparable protocols. As such, Genant's semi‐quantitative method for vertebral compression fracture assessment was applied to a large sample (N = 196) from the Coimbra Identified Skeletal Collection, Portugal, and the reliability of the method was tested. Vertebral fracture scoring agreement was evaluated with the kappa statistic and the per cent of agreement. Intra‐observer agreement was almost perfect, whereas inter‐observer agreement was substantial to almost perfect. The Genant's semi‐quantitative scoring methodology is easy to apply and highly reproducible; as such, it should be adopted as the standard method to score vertebral fractures in any paleopathological investigation. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Examining Activity Patterns and Biological Confounding Factors: Differences between Fibrocartilaginous and Fibrous Musculoskeletal Stress Markers

The present study examines a sample of 105 hunter–gatherer California Amerinds to determine whether fibrocartilaginous musculoskeletal stress markers (MSMs) are better for activity reconstructions than fibrous MSMs. Femoral and humeral head diameters were measured as proxies to body size. All data were analysed for statistical significance using non‐parametric tests. Fibrous MSMs of the left deltoideus, left and right hip adductors, and left and right tibial soleus correlate positively with body size proxies. For fibrocartilaginous MSMs, the right humeral teres minor insertion negatively correlates with humeral head diameter. Both types of MSMs correlate positively with age. More upper limb fibrocartilaginous MSMs display asymmetry than do upper limb fibrous MSMs. Lower limb sex differences were found at the same MSM sites that correlated with body size. Upper limb sex differences at the right teres major, a fibrous site, and the right triceps brachii, a fibrocartilaginous site, seem to reflect activity patterns. Results suggest that fibrocartilaginous MSMs are more useful in reconstructing activity patterns because they display more asymmetry in upper limbs and are less affected by body size than are fibrous MSMs. Yet, correlations with age and a lack of variability at fibrocartilaginous MSM sites may hinder their utility in activity reconstructions. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Enthesopathies and activity patterns in the Early Medieval Great Moravian population: Evidence of division of labour

Bone remodelling in the areas of entheses is frequently supposed to be associated with physical stress and the activity patterns of ancient populations. The main aim of this study was to analyse the prevalence of enthesopathies among individuals living in different life conditions. A total of 197 individuals from the Early Medieval (9th century) Mikulčice site were analysed for enthesopathies ‐ 117 adult individuals from Mikulčice castle and 80 individuals from its hinterland. While the inhabitants of the castle were probably ranked among the higher echelons of society, the hinterland was predominantly inhabited by a farming population. It is hypothesized that individuals from the castle were exposed to lower physical stress than individuals from the hinterland. 9 fibrocartilaginous entheses of the upper and lower limbs were evaluated. Enthesopathies occurred in at least one enthesis in 76% of individuals younger than 50 years of age. Significant differences were observed in the occurrence of enthesopathies between castle and hinterland. Males from the agricultural hinterland show the highest prevalence of enthesopathies of all the population groups, while the lowest prevalence of the marker was recorded in males from the castle. Females in the castle were more affected by entheseal changes than females from the hinterland. Sexual dimorphism was more evident in the hinterland. The present study confirmed presumptions based on the archaeological finds, especially for males. This hypothesis cannot be accepted for females. We may suppose that in the 9th century, women living in Mikulčice castle did not represent a privileged social class. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Comparison of Two Methods for Recording Entheseal Change on a Post‐Medieval Urban Skeletal Collection from Aalst (Belgium)

This research compares two current methods for recording bony changes at muscle attachment sites, called entheseal changes (EC); the Mariotti method and the Coimbra method, to evaluate the concordance and comparability of results in a post‐medieval skeletal collection from Aalst, Belgium (n = 116). For both methods, the EC scores produce broadly similar patterns, are symmetrical and differ between age groups. Statistical differences between the upper and lower limb and the lower limb of males and females only occur in the Mariotti method. With careful consideration of the influence of different EC score ranges, the results from the two methods can generally be compared.     

The chronology of epiphyseal union in the hand and foot from dry bone observations

Dry bone data for epiphyseal union at the hand and foot are scarce, incomplete or inexistent. This study documents the timing of fusion of secondary ossification centres at the hand and foot in a sample of known‐age human skeletons. The sample comprises 92 individuals (49 females and 43 males), between the ages of 9 and 22 years, from the identified skeletal collection curated at the National Museum of Natural History in Lisbon, Portugal. Epiphyseal union was recorded on the right and left side at the long bones of the hand (metacarpus and phalanges) and foot (metatarsus and phalanges), and also at the talus and calcaneus, using a three stage scheme (non‐fused; partially fused and completely fused). In the hand, intra‐observer agreement was 99% and inter‐observer agreement was 98%. In the foot, both intra‐ and inter‐observer agreement reached 100%. Lateral asymmetry was not significant and only 1.1% of the individuals in the sample were found to be asymmetric in the stage of epiphyseal fusion (1.8% in the hand and 0.3% in the foot). A minimum mean advancement of 1–2 years in females relative to males was observed. In the hand bones, epiphyseal union occurred between 12–18 years in females and 16–18 years in males. Comparatively, in the foot bones, epiphyseal union occurred slightly later, with the exception of the talus and calcaneus, which are the earliest bones to mature. Data in this study can be used to estimate the age of unidentified skeletal remains, either directly or by aiding in the modification of incomplete or imprecise data that have been collected over the years. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Endocranial lesions in non‐adult skeletons: understanding their aetiology

Reactive new bone on the endocranial surface of the skull in non‐adults has recently received a lot of attention in the palaeopathological literature. These features appear as layers of new bone on the original cortical surface, expanding around meningeal vessels, as isolated plaques, ‘hair‐on‐end’ extensions of the diploë or, as ‘capillary’ impressions extending into the inner lamina of the cranium. These lesions are commonly found on the occipital bone, outlining the cruciate eminence, but have also been recorded on the parietal and frontal bones, and appear to follow the areas of venous drainage. Although recognized as resulting from haemorrhage or inflammation, their precise aetiology is still a matter of controversy. This paper outlines their possible causes and examines their nature and distribution in a group of non‐adults from four archaeological sites in England. It is recommended that, when recording these lesions in the future, additional skeletal pathologies, the age of the child, and nature and distribution of the lesions also be taken into account. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Skeletal markers of occupational stress in the Fur Trade: A case study from a Hudson's Bay Company Fur Trade post

The Seafort Burial Site (FcPr100) is a Fur Trade Period cemetery located near the town of Rocky Mountain House, Alberta. The results of recent analysis of skeletons recovered during salvage excavations between 1969 and 1971 suggest that three males in this sample were voyageurs in the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company. Vertebral osteophytosis and osteoarthritis, Schmorl's nodes, muscle origin robusticity and new bone formation at entheses and syndesmoses, and osteoarthritis at the elbow and shoulder joints provide evidence for carrying, lifting, and paddling or rowing. The presence of accessory sacral facets also may be stress-related. In addition, the development of accessory articular facets on the metatarsals and proximal pedal phalanges may indicate activity-induced stress from hyperdorsiflexion of the toes in habitual kneeling, such as when river canoeing.     

The gardens of Dunroamin: History and cultural values with specific reference to the gardens of the inter‐war semi1

The study of landscape and garden history is now well established and is beginning to widen its focus. The importance of the vernacular garden both as an expression of popular culture and as an important element in the contemporary environment is beginning to be recognised and is forcing a reappraisal of the concepts of heritage and a reassessment of established recording techniques and methodologies. This paper is part of a study of one type of popular garden and looks particularly at the contemporary response to the gardens of the inter‐war semi‐detached house and at their role as complex social and cultural artefacts.     

Diameter of the human internal acoustic meatus and sex determination

We report the results of testing the diameter of the internal opening of the acoustic canal in the petrous part of the temporal bone for sex determination of skeletal remains. The method involves measuring the diameter using a suite of ordinary drills. The method is very simple and has the great advantage of utilising one of the sturdiest bone elements of the human skeleton. The method may be especially useful for the analyses of very fragmented skeletal remains or cremated bones, where the petrous bone may still be readily recognisable. The method was tested using a forensic sample of 113 left petrous bones with known sex. Intra‐ and inter‐observer testing was also performed. We found a statistically significant difference in diameter between males and females (means: males: 3.7 mm; females: 3.4 mm; P < 0.009). However, the low predictive value (70%) for correct sexing using two sectioning points ( < 3.0 mm = female; >3.5 mm = male) was disappointing. No additional accuracy was gained by employing both left and right petrous bones (a bilateral sample of 60 petrous bones was also tested), although left and right side diameter is highly correlated (R = 0.778; P = 0.0001). Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cortical bone dynamics and age‐related osteopenia in a Longobard archaeological sample from three graveyards of the Veneto region (northeast Italy)

Since the contribution of Brothwell and co‐workers in early 1968, few studies have considered the cortical bone involution in European skeletal series of archaeological interest. The present study concerns the involutive process mechanisms and intra‐ and inter‐sexual variability in femurs of 66 adults belonging to three graveyards of the Longobard era excavated in the Vicenza province (northeast Italy). Cortical thickness and cortical and medullary areas were measured and a correlation matrix was generated for each sex and age class. Intra‐ and inter‐sexual variability were evaluated by two‐tailed t‐tests and a sexual dimorphism index. The results indicate a considerable difference between the sexes, with females showing an earlier and more marked cortical bone loss, as expected. Moreover, comparing the data with the scarce literature available, some discrepancies in cortical bone involution were found in populations with different patterns of adaptation, suggesting the need for further studies in this direction aimed at understanding bone environment dynamics. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

What do muscle marker ruggedness scores actually tell us?

Musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) have been used to reconstruct activity patterns and labour intensity of past populations. Age and size have been found to correlate with MSM, and these aspects should be considered in activity reconstructions. The aim of this study was to find out the nature and the effects of labour intensity, age and size on MSM. Study material were skeletons (N = 108) of individuals of known age, sex and occupation housed at the Natural History Museum, Finland. MSM were scored for Pectoralis major, Deltoid, Teres major and Biceps brachii. These scores were combined to reflect total activity of an individual. Geometric mean of humeral measurements was used as a size indicator and radial tuberosity size was used as a muscle size indicator. Factors explaining MSM were studied using ANCOVA. This included age, size, muscle size, sex, labour intensity, and their interactions. Age and muscle size were the most significant factors explaining MSM, where muscle attachment areas and MSM grow with advancing age. Muscle attachment areas and skeletal frame size were also found to correlate. Least squares regression parameter estimates were used to study the effects of labour intensity, sex and side on MSM. It was found that in early life scores are higher in heavy labour group, but there is less age‐related increase in these scores. This could mean that bone is unable to respond to heavy and continuous loading with surface structure. Therefore labour intensity cannot be reliably recorded in old individuals. Also age and size (as reflected in muscle attachment area) affect MSM and these aspects should be considered before making assumptions on labour intensity. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Morphological changes in the shape of the non‐pathological bony knee joint with age: a morphometric analysis of the distal femur and proximal tibia in three populations of known age at death

This study examines possible morphological variation in the knee joint of Homo sapiens with increasing age in ostensively healthy and non‐pathological distal femora and proximal tibiae. Throughout the lifetime of each individual, the hard tissue of the knee undergoes considerable remodelling as a response to biomechanical stresses, changes in bone microarchitecture and reduction of bone mineral content as a concomitant of ageing. The knee is also subject to greater levels of degenerative joint disease than any other joint. If death occurs whilst such diseases are in the earliest stages, initial bone changes may not be visually obvious in museum specimens. If such specimens are used for comparative analyses, it is hypothesised that changes might render it problematic if all ages are conglomerated into discrete samples. This study therefore investigates the degree to which the distal femur and proximal tibia change shape during ageing and, if changes are present, whether they are expressed similarly in males and females. It also examines whether changes are of greater magnitude than those morphological differences which might exist between populations. In an example population of African‐Americans, results indicate that there is a statistically significant difference in shape between age groups and those differences become progressively greater between the youngest and oldest adults. Results also show that although morphological variation caused by ageing is apparent, those shape differences attributable to sexual dimorphism are more powerful. When two additional populations are analysed jointly with the African‐Americans (Caucasian Americans and the European Spitalfields sample), results indicate that inter‐population shape differences are considerably greater than differences caused by increasing age. Results imply that it is justifiable to combine specimens of all ages into discrete samples for comparative purposes. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mathematics of one day cricket

Abstract

The problem of setting a revised target for the side batting second when a game of one day cricket has been interrupted by the weather is one that has baffled the world's cricket authorities for more than 30 years. This paper describes how a fair method was devised based on a mathematical model of the run scoring process during an innings, and how this has led to the development of the ‘Duckworth/Lewis’ method which is now used in most parts of the world where cricket is played.     

Assessing Post‐traumatic Time Interval in Human Dry Bone

The post‐traumatic status of antemortem fractures in human dry bone remains is currently defined as being either ‘healing’ or ‘healed’. However, detailed ‘dating’ of the related post‐traumatic time interval would be desirable, since it would aid in assessing individual medical status and care at the time of death. Within forensic pathology practice, fresh tissue healing phases are routinely used as an intrinsic parameter for the length of the post‐traumatic time interval. Unfortunately, the direct application of such a method is hampered when applied to dry bone skeletal material. This study explores the possibility of applying a fracture dating system, drawn forth from the traditional forensic pathology method, on dry bone remains. More specifically, the aim is to establish the extent to which various histomorphological features indicative of specific time intervals of healing are consistently detectable. Human dry bones with fractures and amputations in various phases of healing were studied. Results show that the complementary use of radiological and histological investigation techniques improves the differentiation between various healing phases and thus allow for a more detailed dating of lesions. For future use, healing features that have proven to be consistently detectable and their related post traumatic time intervals are listed. The system aids in demarcating a considerably more ‘narrow’ post‐traumatic time interval than usual. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

CHARMed PyMca,Part I: A Protocol for Improved Inter‐laboratory Reproducibility in the Quantitative ED‐XRF Analysis of Copper Alloys

This paper describes a protocol for quantification of heritage copper alloys by energy‐dispersive X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED‐XRF). The protocol, nicknamed CHARMed PyMca, is designed for users who wish to maximize inter‐laboratory reproducibility of quantitative ED‐XRF results for the wide range of copper alloys found in heritage materials. By maximizing reproducibility, this protocol should facilitate collaboration and allow the rigorous use of shared data and databases. The protocol uses free, open‐source, fundamental parameters software called PyMca. PyMca allows for a consistent and transparent application of the fundamental parameters approach independent of the ED‐XRF instrumentation used. The proposed protocol calls for calibration of standardless PyMca results against a set of certified reference materials designed specifically for use with heritage copper alloys, the so‐called copper CHARM set. Finally, this protocol calls for the calibration‐to‐standards to be carried out following a consistent strategy, including error modelling and the incorporation of a validation procedure. A reproducibility study was conducted using CHARMed PyMca and eight different ED‐XRF instruments of six different types. In comparison to a 2010 study conducted according to the same method, CHARMed PyMca showed a dramatic improvement in reproducibility and method sensitivity.     

An Approach to the Diagnosis of Craniofacial Fibrous Dysplasia from the 2500‐Year‐Old Remains of a Skull from Ancient China

A human skull, buried about 2500 years ago in a Bronze Age cemetery at Jinggouzi, a site of an important ethnic group in ancient China, appeared to have characteristics of fibrous dysplasia. The CT images indicated a reduction in bone density and relatively homogeneous lesions. More features were revealed using CT reconstruction techniques. Lesions seen in low‐magnification images using a 3D deep‐field microscope had an irregular honeycomb‐like structure. At higher magnification, the trabeculae morphology and the gaps between the trabeculae were irregular and varied in size and shape. Paraffin‐embedded specimens stained with HE showed trabeculae with tortuous irregular arrangements varying in shape and width. The irregular trabeculae of woven bone has been described as having fibrous dysplasia. Molecular analysis of the GNAS gene indicated no mutation. This provides a non‐invasive approach for us to make more comprehensive diagnoses and to assist research into ancient human diseases.     

Different Preparation Techniques – Similar Results? On the Quality of Thin‐Ground Sections of Archaeological Bone

Palaeohistology as a valuable diagnostic instrument is dependent on the production of high‐quality thin‐ground sections from dry bone. The objective of this study was to consider technical differences and assess the qualitative outcomes of five techniques for preparing thin‐ground sections from dry archaeological bone. Established techniques with long follow‐up times and excellently documented results were compared with simpler and cheaper time‐saving techniques. Evaluations were made of the quality of thin sections obtained by one classical machine‐based embedding technique, two revised versions of the same technique, one manual moulding technique based on Frost's rapid technique and one manual hybrid technique. Five osteological specimens of differing quality were prepared following the manuals for these five techniques and examined microscopically with respect to a list of standardised histological and diagenetic parameters. Alterations in the specimens attributable to preparation effects were recorded, and observations were scored with reference to three criteria: section quality, technical quality and staining. The results show that embedding techniques are to prefer. Superglue should not be used as a mounting or embedding medium. Manual grinding comes with several limitations, and machine cutting and grinding are preferred. Haematoxylin staining can be successfully applied to embedded specimens, giving more information on microscopic diagenetic processes. A stepwise manual for a revision of the classical embedding technique is presented. The time required for producing sections using classical embedding techniques is shortened from 6 weeks to 3.7 days by refining the preparation/polymerization processes involved with no loss of osteological data. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Chronological discrimination of silver coins based on inter‐elemental ratios using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA‐ICP‐MS)

This paper details the application of a statistical method for the chronological discrimination of silver coins using counts per second trace elemental, inter‐elemental ratios. The statistical method described is based on a method that has been applied to similar archaeological materials to determine their provenance. The method makes use of the inter‐element association patterns of multi‐element analytical data determined using laser ablation‐inductively coupled plasma‐mass spectrometry (LA‐ICP‐MS). The majority of the 266 coins analysed for this study have already been successfully identified by their mint markings. The data from LA‐ICP‐MS analyses, together with what is known about the coins through visual identification, were used to discriminate the reigning sovereign, and in the case of Mexico, the year of minting, of individual coins within the elemental fingerprint of different mints. Subsequently, unidentified coins can be placed in the confusion matrix, and their trace element information used to identify their year of minting when compared with other, identified coins from the same mint. The interpretational statistical technique linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was used to explore an identification of year of minting of coins that have previously not been identified by other means based on a statistical comparison against a database of compositional analysis of silver coins of known year of minting.     

Enamel hypoplasia in Danish and Lithuanian Late Medieval/Early Modern samples: a possible reflection of child morbidity and mortality patterns

Numerous studies and various interpretations of the prevalence of linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH) based on populations living in different cultural and economic conditions are causing some confusion and raising doubts about whether or not such LEH are reliable indicators of life conditions. An analysis of LEH prevalence patterns was performed on the adults of three populations: Tirup—a Danish Medieval rural population of the 12–14th centuries (131 individuals), Subačiaus str. in Vilnius—a Lithuanian Late Medieval urban population of the 16–17th centuries (88 individuals), and the aristocracy—a Lithuanian pooled sample population from several churches of the 15–18th centuries (66 individuals). Statistical testing of the influence of population affinity, sex and age at death was also performed. Since the same investigator scored all the samples, possible inter‐observer error bias was minimized. In all the populations, LEH formation ages were similar. Statistically significant sex differences were found only in the aristocratic sample (with higher male frequency). It was found that the town population was characterized by the highest frequency of affected individuals, with the highest severity and highest number of stress episodes per individual. A reliable relationship with age at death was found only in the town sample: individuals with more numerous and more marked LEH had shorter life expectancies in adulthood. Different “most vulnerable years” for subsequent life expectancies were noted for different populations. A tentative explanation of these differences could be the pooled effect of differential morbidity and mortality. It seems that the rural population experienced the highest morbidity and nutrition deficiency as well as the highest child mortality whereas, in the urban sample, high morbidity was accompanied by a lower child mortality. Both lower morbidity and mortality seem to be characteristic for the aristocracy. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.