Effects of artificial deformation on cranial morphogenesis in the south central Andes

One of the most interesting issues of the interface between biology and culture is the artificial deformation of the skull. This modification is produced during early morphogenesis through the use of devices that alter the normal growth and development, to obtain a culturally established model. This paper, using a large cranial sample from the South Central Andes (1586 individuals), describes and documents a detailed morphometric study of the changes affecting the vault, cranial base, face, orbits and nasal region resulting from the tabular erect (TE), tabular oblique (TO), circular erect (CE) and circular oblique (CO) deformations with respect to the model without deformation. Data from 17 metric variables were processed by a one‐way ANOVA and LSD test for paired comparisons. All of the deformation types produce significant morphometric divergence in most of the anatomical structures of the skull. The TE exhibits: a restriction of antero‐posterior growth producing expansion in cranial width and height, frontal flattening, shortening of the face and cranial base, widening of the face, increased nasal and orbit height (ORH) and a foramen magnum size increase. The TO exhibits: most change reflected in the widening of the cranial vault, shortening of the cranial base and face, frontal flattening, increased nasal and ORH and foramen magnum size decrease. The CE style exhibits: a decrease in cranial width and strong increase in the cranial height, a reduction in frontal width, expansion of the cranial base and face, increased nasal and ORH, orbital widening and a foramen magnum size increase. The CO style exhibits: a decrease of the cranial vault's width and height, expansion along its length, stretching of the cranial base and face, reduced frontal width, fronto‐malar and biorbitary elongation of the face and further development of foramen magnum. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Canary islands aborigin sex determination based on mandible parameters contrasted by amelogenin analysis

Sex determination using mandible parameters is population dependent. In order to assess which measurements better characterize sex in prehispanic individuals from the Canary Islands, we blindly contrasted the results obtained by visual inspection and osteometric measurements with those obtained by molecular sexing using amelogenin ancient DNA analysis on teeth from the same material. Unambiguous sex classification was achieved by amplification of sex specific amelogenin alleles in 56 out of 76 mandibles (73.78% of the cases). Visual inspection led to a correct diagnosis in 66.04% of cases, with a greater proportion of errors for female (54.17%) than male (17.24%) mandibles. Osteometric measurements were able to assign sex correctly in 72.2% in the best of cases (mandibular height), a proportion similar to that obtained using a discriminant function (71.2%). By logistic regression analysis, ramus breadth, index ramus breadth/ramus height and mandibular length were the parameters independently related with a mistaken diagnosis of female sex, whereas bigonial width, ramus height and mandibular length were the parameters more closely and independently related to a mistaken diagnosis of male sex. In conclusion, diagnosis based on visual examination of the mandible or on its metric measurement only serves to roughly estimate sex with an accuracy of around 70% or less, at least among the prehispanic population from Gran Canaria. Amplification of amelogenin alleles leads to unambiguous identification of male and female alleles in 73.68% of cases, at least among the prehispanic population from Gran Canaria.     

The Relationship Between Molar Wear and Age in an Early 19th Century AD Archaeological Human Skeletal Series of Documented Age at Death

Crown height of molar teeth was measured in a 19th century Dutch skeletal collection of known age at death. Results indicate an approximately linear relationship between crown height and age. A closer relationship between age and crown height exists for the mandibular than the maxillary molars. The mandibular molars wear at a faster rate than the maxillary molars. There is no evidence for any difference in wear rates between first, second and third molars. No effect on wear rate of ante-mortem loss of occlusal partner nor of dental caries could be detected. The rate of wear in the study material was markedly slower than that which characterizes most archaeological groups and the burials are drawn from a rather heterogeneous urban population; these factors mean that dental wear ageing would be expected to perform less well in this material than for most archaeological groups. Despite this, strong correlations were observed between molar wear and adult age at death; that this was the case despite circumstances unfavourable for its use supports the idea that dental wear is a reliable ageing technique for most archaeological skeletal material.     

Craniofacial variation between southern and northern Neolithic and Modern Chinese

Previous studies propose that the Yangtze River is the geographic boundary separating northern and southern Chinese populations. In order to test this hypothesis, 19 Neolithic and 15 Modern human cranial samples from north of the Qinling Mountain Range, south of the Yangtze River and in between were chosen for morphometric analysis. Our results indicate that cranial variation exists in Holocene Neolithic and Modern northern and southern Chinese. In the Neolithic sample, the northern Chinese crania are characterised by greater upper face height and orbit height, while the southern Chinese skulls are depicted by a wider nose. The morphology of the crania between the Qinling Mountain range and the Yangtze River feature a mosaic of characters that suggest affiliation with both north and south groups. In the Modern day sample, northern crania are characterised by a broad and wide face, and a tall nose. From the Neolithic to Modern day, a series of microevolutionary processes that apply to both the northern and southern samples can be discerned. Overall, the head gets lower, the face and nose become narrower and the orbits tend to be narrower and higher. Our results support the suggestion that the Qinling Mountain Range and the Yangtze River represent a natural barrier to the movement of Chinese populations. Climatic variation and the transition to an agricultural lifestyle are proposed as the primary factors influencing human craniofacial morphologies. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age at death estimates for the protohistoric Arikara using molar attrition rates: A new quantification method

Dental attrition is positively related to ageing and has often been used to determine age at death of animals and prehistoric/historic humans. A newly designed molar-attrition-scoring standard was applied to a protohistoric skeletal sample, the Arikara (N = 143) from the North American Plains. Several criteria are used in producing a molar tooth crown wear (MTCW) score. These include: (i) the size of enamel wear facets, (ii) the amount of dentine and secondary dentine exposure, (iii) the height of the tooth, (iv) the enamel rim thickness, and (v) the amount of pulp-cavity exposure in the advanced stages. Age-at-death estimates were generated from ordinary least-squares (OLS) analysis, with estimated age regressed independently on the total molar attrition score (TMAS), mean molar-1 tooth crown wear (ȲM1TCW), mean molar-2 tooth crown wear (ȲM2TCW), and mean molar-3 tooth crown wear (ȲM3TCW). In all analyses (with the exception of the third molar), the coefficient of determination (r²) revealed a strong relationship between molar attrition and age. Multiple-regression analysis revealed a significant sex difference in molar-attrition rates. Besides intercept and slope differences, the female scatter showed greater molar attrition variation than the male scatter. There was no statistical difference between mean upper molar attrition score (UMAS) and lower molar attrition score (LMAS). There was no significant difference in molar attrition rates by side, and side by molar tooth.     

Boards and Cords: Discriminating Types of Artificial Cranial Deformation in Prehispanic South Central Andean Populations

For over a century, a number of ambiguous typologies have been employed to distinctly categorise types of artificial cranial deformation. This paper provides a quantitative method, based on multiple dimensions and discriminant function analysis, by which to assign skulls not only into discrete categories: deformed or not, but also by type: annular or tabular. A series of prehispanic, adult, human crania (n = 469) from archaeological sites in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru represented by both normal and artificially deformed specimens, provide craniometric data for four measurements across the vault: maximum cranial length, breadth and height and the frontal chord. These data are used to develop three indices which in turn are used to compute two discriminant functions. Results are plotted on a territorial map whereby the type of deformity can be determined. When these methods were applied to a comparative cranial sample of nondeformed skulls from South America, 100% of the samples was found to be nondeformed. When these methods were applied to the samples which were subjectively classified a priori by the first author as nondeformed, 81.3% of the samples were found to be nondeformed. This study demonstrates the value of a more objective and quantitative method by which to classify artificial cranial deformation, and thus provides a new approach. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Craniofacial morphology,diet and incisor use in three native American populations

It has been difficult to infer behaviours related to anterior tooth use in fossil hominids owing to a lack of broad‐based comparative studies of the relationships between front tooth use and craniodental features in modern humans. In this study, we seek to establish such a neontological baseline by exploring aspects of craniodental form among populations of recent humans that are inferred to have differed in habitual levels of ingestive and paramasticatory processing using the incisors. Morphometric data are compared among samples from three human populations: Aleutian Islanders (n=25); Arikara from the Mobridge Site, SD (n=19); and a late Woodland Bluff group from Jersey County, IL (n=24). Data for various biomechanically relevant dimensions were collected using standard callipers, while three‐dimensional (3D) coordinate data for 28 cranial landmarks were recorded using a video‐based image analysis system. These data indicate that several aspects of cranial form thought to influence the efficiency of force production on the incisors differ among the examined groups, including the positions and size of the primary masticatory muscles and the position of the dentition. For most dimensions, the Aleut sample exhibits the most mechanically advantageous configuration, the Illinois Bluff group the least advantageous configuration, while the Arikara are intermediate in form. This pattern corresponds to differences in the intensity of incisor loading among these groups, as inferred from both ethnographic reports and incisor microwear data. These results, therefore, suggest that cranial form in humans varies with subsistence‐related differences in masticatory force production and that quantitative studies of masticatory system configuration may provide useful information for studies of hominid palaeobiology. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Correlation between dental occlusal wear and approximal facet length

The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between occlusal surface wear and approximal facet length in a North American archaeological sample of modern human hunter–gatherers (n = 111) and agriculturalists (n = 123). First maxillary molars (M¹) were selected. The approximal wear facet was measured on the mesial surface of each M¹ at the widest breadth using needle tipped digital callipers. Digital images were taken of the occlusal surface and wear was recorded as the percentage of dentine exposed to the total occlusal surface. Independent age estimate was based on age‐related changes, (pubic symphysis and auricular surface). Results show the hunter–gatherers had a significantly faster rate of wear on both tooth surfaces compared to the agriculturalists in each of the four age groups. Both lifeway groups showed a positive correlation between the two tooth surfaces during the early stages of tooth wear (less than 25% occlusal wear), where the percentage of occlusal wear and the length of the approximal facet increased at a similar rate. During the middle and final stages of tooth wear (occlusal wear greater than 35%) there was a strong negative correlation between the two surfaces in both groups. It is suggested this pattern is due to the shape and function of the M¹. Both correlations were more extreme in the hunter–gatherers than the agriculturalists. When the per cent of occlusal wear exceeded 35% the length of the approximal facet started to decrease, and it is therefore recommended studies that include approximal wear exclude molars with heavy occlusal wear. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mandibular Fracture and Dislocation in a Case Study from the Jewish Cemetery of Lucena (CÓRDOBA), in South Iberian Peninsula (8th–12th ad)

The skeletal remains of an adult female have been exhumed in an 11th century tomb in the mediaeval Jewish cemetery of Ronda Sur, in the city of Lucena (Córdoba, Spain). Examination of the skull and mandible revealed evidences of bilateral condylar fracture and dislocation. Lesions were observed macroscopically and radiology was used as a complementary method of scrutiny, especially in cases of unclear observation. Irregular morphology of the condyles and coronoid processes, shallow glenoid fossa, altered and abnormal joint surfaces anterior to the glenoid fossa, and reduced height of both ascending rami were observed. Ante‐mortem tooth loss, slight wear of occlusal surface and asymmetrical occlusal deposit of dental calculus were found. Radiologically, degenerative changes in the condyles and reparative bone in both coronoid processes have been identified. Dislocation of the condyles and lack of adequate treatment probably led to disruption of masticatory patterns and related structures, such as muscle attachments, articular disc and ligaments. Bilateral remodelled fracture and the altered appearance of the joint structures could probably mean that the individual survived the injury by several years. This type of fracture could be the consequence of direct blow to the mental or submental region that was transmitted in a direction that raised the mandible, causing the condylar head to collide directly with the mandibular fossa. Very few mandibular fractures in ancient skulls have been described in Spain, and this case is the first example found in a Spanish archaeological skeletal assemblage. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dental evolution in prehistoric Native Americans of the Ohio valley area. I. Wear and pathology

Temporal patterns of tooth wear rates (loss of crown height) and dental pathologies (caries, abscess, and tooth loss) are estimated for 40 Native American populations of the upper Ohio River valley area ranging in time from the Late Archaic (ca. 3500 years BP ) to Protohistoric times (ca. 350 years BP ). Within this time span three ‘dental cultural ecological environments’ are recognized: high rates of wear, low frequencies of pathology (Late Archaic), low rates of wear, low frequencies of pathologies (Woodland, ca. 2500–1000 years BP ), and low rates of wear and high frequencies of pathologies (Late Prehistoric, ca. post-1000 years BP ). Phenotypic selection acting to maintain tooth size is associated with pre-ceramic, hunter–fisher–gatherers in the first dental environment. The introduction and development of ceramics at the end of the Late Archaic is associated with significant reduction in tooth wear rates and reduction in size of maxillary teeth, most likely due to selection. From at least the Middle Woodland period (ca. 2000 years BP ) to the end of the time sequence considered, tooth size in Ohio Valley Native Americans was stable, with minor fluctuations due to genetic drift. At present there is no evidence that major changes in diet at the beginning of the Late Prehistoric period affected tooth size, even though the frequencies of dental pathologies increased dramatically. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Prediction Models for Age‐at‐Death Estimates for Calves,Using Unfused Epiphyses and Diaphyses

For cattle (Bos taurus), age estimations using dental criteria before the eruption of the first molar (3–8 months) have large error margins. This hampers archaeozoological investigation into perinatal mortality or the putative slaughtering of very young calves for milk exploitation. Previous ageing methods for subjuveniles have focused on the length of unfused bones, but it is rarely possible to use them because they are restricted to foetuses and because of the fragmentation of bones. This paper presents new age prediction models based on length, breadth and depth of post cranial bones produced from a dataset of modern calves (n = 27). This reference collection was compiled from material of known age at death, sex and breed from collections in Britain, France, Germany and Switzerland. Linear regression models were constructed using the modern data for age prediction, and these models were then successfully tested and assessed using a Middle Neolithic assemblage of complete calves' skeletons from Bourguignon‐Lès‐Morey, France. From the assessment, the astragalus and metapodials were determined to be the most reliable bones, and the femur was the worst. Measurements of the epiphyseal and distal elements and depth measurements were the most reliable. For ages before 12 months, these models can provide ±1 month age estimates. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluating human skeletal growth: An Anglo-Saxon example

Cross-sectional growth data were obtained from the skeletal remains of non-adults from the Raunds Anglo-Saxon site. Standard measurements of the diaphyseal lengths of the long bones of the upper and lower limbs and the maximum breadth of the ilium were recorded in order to construct skeletal growth profiles (SGP). In addition regression equations were used to estimate diaphyseal length from proximal and distal shaft widths, and epiphyseal breadth data for fragmentary remains. The skeletal measurements were then plotted against age estimates determined by the dental formation standards of Moorrees, Fanning and Hunt, and Anderson, Thompson and Popovich. The growth data were compared with sixth to seventh century German, ninth century Slavic and modern Caucasian data. With the exception of the ancient Slavic material, the Anglo-Saxon remains demonstrated the smallest rates of growth. Diaphyseal ageing curves derived from the Anglo-Saxon sample were tested for applicability on the non-adult cohorts of the Berinsfield and Exeter Anglo-Saxon/Early Medieval samples. Differences were observed between diaphyseal age as determined from the skeletal growth profiles for Raunds and calcification age assessed for individuals within the test samples. It is proposed that variation in long bone growth as well as dental age confounds consistent and reliable ageing of skeletal remains based on diaphyseal length. Assessment of changes in health and evaluation of methodological problems inherent to studies of skeletal growth from archaeological populations are discussed. Population comparisons for changes in general health are recommended over individual assessments.     

Evidence for temporal and social differences in cranial dimensions in Edo‐period Japanese

This study examined the craniometric traits of the Edo‐period (AD1603–1867) human skeletons from the Hitotsubashi site in Tokyo, compared them with temporally and socially various populations, and attempted to detect the morphological differentiation patterns that the Edo‐period Japanese exhibited over time and under those social/environmental conditions. The materials measured here were the townsmen's crania from the Hitotsubashi site, which were dated back to the early half of the Edo period. The observations revealed that the Hitotsubashi samples were more dolichocephalic than any other Edo series and were different from subsequent Edo series in terms of larger maximum cranial length and smaller maximum cranial breadth. The Hitotsubashi samples were definitely in contrast with those of Tentokuji and Shirogane, both of which included a samurai (warrior) class of the late to final Edo period and exhibited the most brachycephalic crania. It is reasonable to assume that the temporal and social situations were possibly related to the observed cranial variation and that the temporal changes in cranial dimensions in pre‐modern Japan might have reflected the nutritional and environmental conditions. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stafne's defects in two mandibles from archaeological sites in Croatia

Salivary gland inclusions in the mandible are relatively uncommon in recent as well as archaeological populations. This condition is well known to oral surgeons, but less so to anthropologists, osteologists and skeletal biologists. At present a limited number of reports pertaining to this condition in ancient populations are available in anthropological and palaeopathological literature, although scattered reports of cases in recent populations are found in dental journals. This paper analyses the prevalence of Stafne's bone defect in a large composite Croatian archaeological series (n = 4250 mandibles), and reports on two cases in which computerised tomography was performed, in order to draw the attention of anthropologists, osteologists and skeletal biologists to this condition when faced with differential diagnosis of odontogenic lesions, cysts and neoplasms in the area of the angle of the mandible. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hypodontia of permanent teeth among Middle Palaeolithic hominids: an early case dated to ca. 92 000±5000 years BP at the Qafzeh site

The analysis of the maxillae and mandible belonging to a Middle Palaeolithic child has provided evidence of the early appearance of a developmental dental anomaly among Homo sapiens. The material came from the Near Eastern site of Qafzeh. In the mandible there was agenesis of the left second premolar and congenital absence of the right could not be totally excluded. Additional analyses including two presumed cases of dental development anomalies within contemporaneous prehistoric populations showed that tooth agenesis also can affect the anterior region of the mandible, and could be clearly separated from ante-mortem tooth loss caused by trauma. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Incisor labial surface wear striations in modern humans and their implications for handedness in Middle and Late Pleistocene hominids

Over the past four decades several workers have argued that the orientations of striations on the labial surfaces of the front teeth of Middle and Late Pleistocene fossils attributed to Neanderthals and antecedent archaic hominids can tell us something about handedness. These researchers have suggested that such scratches result from stone tools scraping across the incisors during ‘stuff‐and‐cut’ behaviours, and that they reflect directions of hand movements and handedness. In this study, we examine comparable wear features on the incisors of anatomically modern humans to determine whether striation angle may reflect handedness. The teeth from 66 individuals representing four groups with known differences in subsistence practices (Aleut, Arikara, Illinois Bluff, and Puye) were examined. Photomicrographs were made of the maxillary central incisor labial surfaces of all individuals at 56× magnification. These photomicrographs were scanned to image files, and orientations of all visible wear striations were measured using a semi‐automated image analysis procedure. Approximately three‐quarters of all labial surfaces showed a preferred striation orientation. Of those, most had preferred apico‐cervical or vertical striation orientations, independent of cultural affiliation. Few showed the tendency toward diagonally‐oriented scratches expected if handedness is related to scratch orientation. We found no evidence for ‘stuff‐and‐cut’ striations, despite the fact that at least one of the groups studied—the Aleut—are documented to have used this behaviour. In sum, there is evidently no relationship between striation orientation and handedness in the groups studied. It is, therefore, unlikely that labial scratch orientation in Middle and Late Pleistocene hominids reflects handedness if they used their front teeth in a manner comparable to that of any of the anatomically modern groups considered here. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Molar crown height: not always a reliable method for the evaluation of age-at-death

In this study, we tested the validity of molar crown height, which changes according to the degree of tooth wear, for the evaluation of age-at-death. The sample consisted of 372 first and second molars (lower and upper) from 157 individuals of known sex and age-at-death. For each molar, we measured the height of the two cusps most subjected to wear (protocone and hypocone for the upper M1 and M2; protoconid and hypoconid for the lower M1 and M2). The correlation between crown height and age-at-death was assessed by linear regression analysis. The resulting models were not very robust since a significant correlation was only found for a small part of the sample, at best (maxillary M1) around 35%. The result slightly improved when bucco-lingual diameter (BL diameter), ante-mortem tooth loss and dental caries were considered, mainly for the maxillary M2 for which the model using age-at-death and BL diameter as independent variables explained 47% of the sample (p < 0.001).     

Pulp Stones Prevalence in a Historical Sample from Radom,Poland (ad 1791–1811)

This paper provides an investigation of pulp stones in a sample drawn from the historical population of Radom, Poland, dating to between ad 1791 and 1811. This study seeks to determine the frequency of pulp stones, and assess the association between pulp stones and sex, age, dental caries, and dental wear. A total of 780 teeth from 121 adult individuals of both sexes (45 females, 76 males) were examined. Analysis was limited to molars. The average age‐at‐death of each individual was estimated. Total wear scores across the molars were calculated for each individual. Pulp stones were identified by a portable dental X‐ray machine. Pulp stones were found in 94 of 121 individuals and in 273 of 780 molars. No statistically significant correlation was found between pulp stones and age‐at‐death (p  = 0.7625) and sex (p  = 0.0915), but a significant relationship was found between pulp stones and dental wear (p  < 0.0001) and dental caries (p  = 0.0016). Our study found that molars affected by highly advanced dental wear were significantly more often accompanied by pulp stones than molars that had experienced limited wear. Similarly, significant correlations were observed for dental caries. It means that pulp stone formation appears to have been contingent upon the irritation of the tooth crown by factors such as forces acting on the tooth crown leading to dental wear or dental caries. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

DENTAL ATTRITION AT THE INDIAN KNOLL (15OH2) AND BLACK EARTH (11SA87) SITES: EXTREME WEAR AS A STRESSOR IN LATE ARCHAIC POPULATIONS OF THE OHIO VALLEY

Abstract

This study investigates comparatively the prospect that excessive dental wear in certain Late Archaic populations in eastern North America was caused by extensive shellfish consumption and the associated ingestion of grit. Specifically, the amount and rate of dental wear at Indian Knoll, a large shell midden site in western Kentucky, are compared to those at the Black Earth site, a contemporary occupation in southern Illinois with no evidence of shellfish utilization. Results show no significant differences in dental wear between Indian Knoll and Black Earth and point correspondingly toward the alternative prospect that the intensification of Late Archaic food-processing technology using stone-grinding and hot-rock cooking was the proximate cause. Such technologies provided short-term caloric benefits, but long-term disease consequences for adults of child-bearing age. A decrease in young adult dental wear correlates with the adoption of both food production and pottery in the subsequent Woodland period.     

The prediction of physique from the skeleton

This paper attempts to define the relation between (1) human skeletal measurements and (2) height, weight and physique indices. Admitted to the study were 686 men and women from five ethnic groups (White, Inuit, Gurkha, Bantu and San). In addition to height and weight, subjects had defined cranial and postcranial measurements taken using methods derived from clinical examination techniques. Measurements were checked for reliability. Skinfold callipers were used to allow for the thickness of soft‐tissues overlying bone widths. Adjustment factors were derived from radiological gold standards. Radiological measurements, adjusted for magnification, of the lumbar vertebrae from 42 subjects were also done. A correlation matrix was constructed for the complete study population and all variables to allow a preliminary assessment of useful predictive independent variables. Discriminant scores for classification by gender were calculated. Regression computations, using least square regression, were calculated for six defined reference populations. The regression residuals were examined to confirm fulfilment of assumptions. The results indicated that skull and dental arcade variables yield little information about the size and physique of an individual but have some relevance for group comparisons. Long bone widths are moderately and equally correlated with height and weight. Lower limb bone widths are better correlated with body weight than those of the upper limb. The best predictive variables for body weight are the minimal ‘area’ of the lumbar vertebrae (L1–L4) and regressions involving various bone widths. It is confirmed that height correlates well with the lengths of long bones, but the prediction is improved by the addition of a width from the same bone as a second independent variable. Lower limb long bones are not better predictors of height than upper limb ones. The body mass index is best predicted from the available measurements by a regression with the minimal ‘area’ of L1 and the tibial length as independent variables. A lumbar vertebra, particularly L1, yields important information about height, weight and the body mass index. The patella width is, in part, a marker for mesomorphy. Reconstruction of the ankle to enable the width across the malleoli to be measured would yield useful estimates of weight and height. The findings have been applied to the Paviland femur. A provisional male attribution has been made. The derived height is similar to that of tall modern White men. The physique was probably mesomorphic and ectopenic, the physique of strength rather than mobility, but the confidence intervals are very wide. To enable this sort of assessment to be made more confidently, the study requires replication substituting the precision of magnetic resonance imaging for the relative imprecision of skeletal measurements taken directly from the intact body. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.