Ascetic or affluent? Byzantine diet at the monastic community of St. Stephen’s,Jerusalem from stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios from bone collagen in skeletons from the Byzantine (5th–7th century AD) monastery of St. Stephen’s in Jerusalem were examined in conjunction with a review of historical sources detailing dietary practices during this period in the Levant. Relatively low δ¹³C ratios (−19.0 ± 0.5‰, 1σ) indicate a diet consisting primarily of C₃ sources and display continuity with textual records describing monastic daily life. Conversely, human δ¹⁵N values (9.6 ± 1.2‰, 1σ) are enriched in ¹⁵N relative to local fauna (7.3 ± 1.1‰, 1σ) and point to the contribution of animal protein to the diet, an unexpected result based on both the rarity and expense of these luxury food items as well as dietary prohibitions associated with an ascetic monastic lifestyle. No sex-based differences in diet were detected for either δ¹³C or δ¹⁵N values, suggesting that men and women consumed isotopically similar foods. As the vast majority of monastic communities in the ancient Near East were located in the desert, the urban setting of St. Stephen’s monastery allows for a unique glimpse into a rarely-explored facet of Byzantine life.     

Diet in the Iron Age cemetery population at Wetwang Slack,East Yorkshire,UK: carbon and nitrogen stable isotope evidence

This paper reports δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values for human and animal bone collagen from the middle Iron Age site at Wetwang Slack, East Yorkshire, UK. The data indicate a human diet which was high in animal protein, with no evidence for any significant marine food input. No differences were found between high-status vehicle (or ‘chariot’) burials and the rest of the population and no other status differentiations are visible according to burial rite, age or sex groupings, although the data obtained for the older males display an unusual trend. No dietary variation is seen between two site phases and no evidence for an early immigrant group is present. The range of isotope values for the adult human group as a whole is small, indicating that the diet is likely to have been consistent over time and across the population, although two individuals stand out as unusual amongst the 62 analysed.     

Reassessing the diet of Upper Palaeolithic humans from Gough's Cave and Sun Hole,Cheddar Gorge,Somerset, UK

Richards et al. (2000) reconstructed the diet of the human remains found in Gough's and Sun Hole Cave through isotope analysis. They concluded that these people consumed an entirely terrestrial-based diet. Their reconstruction was based upon comparison of the results from human bones with those from a very small number of associated animals. The diets of the Gough's and Sun Hole Cave human were different from the other six Upper Palaeolithic humans from the British Isles for which dietary information has been obtained through isotope analysis. The work of Richards et al. (2000) suggests that they were the only ones for whom marine or freshwater resources did not play a significant role in their diets. We test this through further analyses of faunal remains from Gough's Cave, Sun Hole and other contemporary sites (Kent's Cavern, Aveline's Hole, Kendrick's Cave). Despite the limited faunal sample, the original palaeodietary reconstruction is broadly consistent with our findings. The isotope values of the main protein sources consumed by the humans from both sites are consistent with those of red deer and bovines, and, for a single individual, with that of horse and red deer. Reindeer was postulated in the original reconstruction as a potential food source, but this seems very unlikely based on our isotope reconstruction and the archaeological remains.     

Human–environment interactions in medieval Poland: a perspective from the analysis of faunal stable isotope ratios

Stable isotope analyses of faunal remains provide valuable information about human–environment interactions in the past, including insights into past animal husbandry and land management strategies. Here, we report stable carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotope values of collagen and carbonate from archaeological fauna from Ka?dus, a medieval settlement in North-Central Poland, to better understand human–environment interactions during a period of increasing urbanism and marketization. Wild and domestic animals can be separated on the basis of their isotopic values. The mean δ¹⁵N value for 12 domesticated animals is 7.6 ± 1.2‰ and for 5 wild animals is 4.3 ± 0.5‰ (p = 0.002). The mean collagen δ¹³C value for domesticated animals is −20.6 ± 1.1‰ and for wild animals is −22.0 ± 0.5‰ (p = 0.004). The mean carbonate δ¹³C value for domesticated animals is −13.14 ± 1.3‰ and for wild animals is −14.14 ± 0.9‰ (p = 0.034). The “canopy effect” and anthropogenic effects that alter stable isotope ratios of plants (manuring, swidden agriculture and ploughing) are discussed in relation to these differences. Fish are isotopically variable, which suggests broad-spectrum fishing strategies and/or trade, and increases our awareness of the difficulties in interpreting human paleodiet when freshwater fish were on the menu.     

Stable isotope analysis of humans from Xiaojingshan site: implications for understanding the origin of millet agriculture in China

Millet agriculture originated in Northern China in the early Neolithic period (ca. 8000 BP), however, the actual importance of millet in human diets is still not clear. To determine the relative contribution of millet in human diets in this period we undertook stable isotope analysis of humans from Xiaojingshan site and fauna from Yuezhuang site, both of which are attributed to the Houli Culture and date to about 8000 years ago. The carbon isotope values of human bone collagen showed that millet (as a C₄ plant) only contributed approximately 25% of dietary protein, with the rest from C₃ based plant and animal sources, if a simple mixing model is used. We did not observe any statistical dietary difference between males and females at the site, although it has been argued that the Houli Culture was a matriarchal society. Finally, we compared our data with other published isotopic data from the contemporary Jiahu site and Xinglongwa site and a number of sites from the subsequent Yangshao Culture and found that millet only became a significant source of dietary protein approximately 1000 years later, as human carbon isotope values from these later sites indicated that almost all of dietary protein came from C₄ (i.e. millet) sources.     

Stable isotope analysis of Late Upper Palaeolithic human and faunal remains from Grotta del Romito (Cosenza), Italy

Stable isotope analysis of carbon (δ¹³C), nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) and sulphur (δ³⁴S) were carried out on one of the largest assemblages of Late Upper Palaeolithic human remains in Southern Europe, at Grotta del Romito (Cosenza), Italy. The burials were stratigraphically dated from ca. 18,000 to 13,000 cal BP, which was confirmed by a series of new AMS dates made directly on the bone collagen. Dietary reconstruction from carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes revealed that eight of the nine individuals analysed, dating to the Final Epigravettian, had very consistent diets, rich in terrestrial animal protein, regardless of their age or sex. These included two individuals who were suffering from severe pathologies. A single individual, dating to the Evolved Epigravettian had a more variable diet, which was significantly enriched in protein from marine or freshwater fish compared to the later burials. Overall, the results are consistent with the very limited number of other studies which describe a change to more specialised and less variable subsistence strategies, in this case the hunting of large herbivores, towards the end of the Palaeolithic period. Sulphur isotope values of all of the nine burials and several faunal samples were notably consistent, showing no evidence of long-distance migration to the site from a different geological zone.     

Stable isotopes and diet at Ancient Kerma,Upper Nubia (Sudan)

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope values were measured from bone collagen extracted from archaeological Nubian human (n = 54) and faunal (n = 61) populations from the site of Kerma, Sudan. Collagen suitable for isotopic analysis was extracted from 22 faunal and 48 human samples from the Eastern cemetery site, dated to the Middle Kerma (c. 2050–1750 BC) and Classic Kerma (c. 1750–1500 BC) periods respectively. The isotopic data indicate that the human dietary regimen included a mix of C₃ and C₄ plant-derived components, with a larger C₄ component than previously reported in archaeological Egyptian Nile Valley populations. Elevated δ¹⁵N values are attributed to consumption of dietary resources from a ¹⁵N-enriched terrestrial ecosystem. The faunal isotope data also indicate the consumption of C₃ and C₄ plants. The large range of δ¹³C values measured in both the human and faunal samples supports previous work suggesting that a significant portion of the populations buried at Kerma may have originated elsewhere, further confirming the Nile Valley as a major corridor for population movement in the region.     

Food and social complexity at Çayönü Tepesi,southeastern Anatolia: Stable isotope evidence of differentiation in diet according to burial practice and sex in the early Neolithic

The identification of early social complexity and differentiation in early village societies has been approached in the past most notably through the evaluation of rituals and architectural layouts. Such studies could be complemented by an approach that provides data about everyday behaviours of individuals. We took 540 human and animal bone samples for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis from the Neolithic site of Çayönü Tepesi in southeastern Anatolia. The inhabitants at this site chose to bury their dead in two different ways at different times during its occupation: beneath the floors of their houses, but also inside a public mortuary building known as the Skull Building. This variation provides an opportunity using isotope methods to test whether there was evidence for structuring of daily activities (diet in this case) that might serve to reinforce this change in burial practice. We show that when the inhabitants of Çayönü Tepesi changed their architecture and operated different burial practices in conjunction, this coincided with other aspects of behaviour including socially-constituted food consumption practices, which served to reinforce social identities.     

Palaeoenvironmental and chronological investigations of the Magdalenian sites of Goyet Cave and Trou de Chaleux (Belgium), via stable isotope and radiocarbon analyses of horse skeletal remains

Trou de Chaleux and Goyet are caves situated less than 30 km apart in Belgium that contain stratified Magdalenian artefacts and butchered faunal remains. Published radiocarbon dates suggest that both sites were contemporaneously occupied during to the Late-glacial interstadial. It has previously been suggested that the Trou de Chaleux Late-glacial faunal remains might be slightly older than those at Goyet Cave, and that Trou de Chaleux has two phases of occupation during the Late-glacial interstadial. However, the limited number of radiocarbon dates currently available makes it impossible to determine whether the sites are truly contemporaneous, and the assessment of their absolute chronologies is complicated by a plateau in the calibration curve. In this paper, bone collagen δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N signatures of horse bones from the two sites are used to reconstruct local palaeoenvironments. We hypothesise that if occupations at the two sites were contemporaneous, the horse collagen δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N isotope signatures from both sites will be similar, since comparable carbon and nitrogen isotopic values would reflect similar diets, ecologies and environments. To provide clear dating parameters, new AMS radiocarbon determinations are also presented. Results show that horse collagen δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N isotope signatures at the two sites are different, indicating that the populations were not subject to similar diets, ecologies and environments. The new radiocarbon dates confirm that the horse bones from Trou de Chaleux date to the Late-glacial interstadial, but they also show that in Goyet Cave Horizons 1 and 2, older horse remains dating to ca. 32?000–27?000 ¹⁴C yr BP are mixed with Late-glacial horse remains. The δ¹⁵N values of the Goyet Cave horse bones radiocarbon dated to the Pleniglacial are substantially higher than those that have Late-glacial radiocarbon dates. Therefore, we now hypothesise that the majority of the horse bones isotopically analysed from Goyet Cave Horizon 1 are Pleniglacial in age. Statistical analysis of the radiocarbon dates indicates that the Late-glacial occupation at the two sites was contemporaneous, and that while there may appear to be two phases of occupation at Trou de Chaleux, this may be an artefact of the radiocarbon calibration curve.     

Evaluating bone collagen extraction methods for stable isotope analysis in dietary studies

The specific purpose of this study was to compare three different collagen extraction methods commonly used in isotope laboratories conducting dietary studies. We evaluated their resultant differences in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N, collagen quality and collagen yield. Our study was based on well-preserved skeletal material from the medieval period in Denmark. Our study shows that there is a systematic significant difference in the yield and the δ¹³C values between the three methods. Using the method of DeNiro and Epstein [DeNiro, M.J., Epstein, S., 1981. Influence of diet on the distribution of nitrogen isotopes in animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 45, 341–351] with NaOH as cleaning agent, will, according to our study, give δ¹³C values that are on average ±0.32‰ more positive than using the ultra-filtration method [Brown, T.A., Nelson, D.E., Vogel, J.S., Southon, J.R., 1988. Improved collagen extraction by modified Longin method. Radiocarbon 30 (2), 171–177, modified in Richards, M.P., Hedges R.E.M., 1999. Stable isotope evidence for similarities in the types of marine foods used by late Mesolithic humans at sites along the Atlantic coast of Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 26, 717–722]. The third method, which is a modified version of the second method, excluded the ultra-filtration step. This method seems to give δ¹³C values that lie in between the other methods. Our study did not show any significant difference in δ¹⁵N values. Although the differences between the methods are very small, we conclude that the use of stable isotope analysis in food determination studies requires adherence to routine methods for preparing and measuring samples.     

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes of human dental calculus: a potentially new non-destructive proxy for paleodietary analysis

Fifty-eight dental calculus samples from medieval and post-medieval skeletons from Vitoria, Spain, and a single sample from an Alaskan Inuit were tested for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope compositions. There was sufficient carbon and nitrogen concentrations to obtain δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values, and the samples from Spain produced results that were replicable and comparable to European isotope values based on bone collagen collected from literature sources. The Alaskan Inuit calculus sample yielded a δ¹⁵N value of +17.5‰, well beyond the range of the Spanish samples, but consistent with literature data for modern Greenlandic Inuit consuming a diet rich in marine food. There are several potential sources for carbon and nitrogen in calculus. The results of this study yield stable isotope values consistent with those obtained from other biomaterials used as isotope proxies for paleodietary research, including bone collagen, hair, and fingernails, although further work is necessary to verify the fidelity of calculus as an isotope proxy. Many studies in bioarchaeology are precluded by curatorial concerns regarding the destructive analysis of primary biomaterials. However, calculus is an “add-on”, or secondary biomaterial, that is not an integral part of the dental or skeletal system. Hence, its consumption during analysis is technically not destructive. Therefore, isotope analysis of dental calculus may provide a potential new avenue for paleodietary analysis where the use of other primary biomaterials is precluded.     

Alkaline cooking and stable isotope tissue-diet spacing in swine: archaeological implications

In this study we examine the effects of alkaline cooking on carbon and oxygen stable isotopic ratios of mineralized tissues from nine pigs raised on monotonous mixed C3/C4 vegetarian diets. Two sources of collagen (humerus and mandible) and two sources of apatite (humerus and enamel) were analyzed. Within each diet group, humerus and mandible collagens were found to record equivalent δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O ratios; however, enamel apatite was found to be enriched over bone apatite by 2.3‰ in carbon and 1.7‰ in oxygen. Alkaline cooking was found to slightly, but significantly increase the Δ¹³C_{collagen-diet} and Δ¹⁸O_{collagen-diet} of bone collagen. A similar trend towards enrichment was observed in bone and enamel Δ¹³C_apatite-diet and Δ¹⁸O _apatite-diet, but the differences were not significant. Observed isotopic shifts were consistent with increased nutrient utilization of the alkaline-cooked maize as compared to raw maize. In addition, a reexamination of the relationship between diet and tissue carbon isotopic values suggests that species and alimentary type should be considered when interpreting ancient diets.     

The sinking of the Mary Rose warship: a medieval mystery solved?

The cause of the sinking of Henry VIII's Vice Flagship, the Mary Rose, as she sailed out to meet the French fleet on 19th July AD 1545, has remained an enduring mystery and contested encounter between the English and French Navies. The French claim was that the ship was holed by French cannon fire, whilst the English maintained that she sank due to a poorly executed navigational manoeuvre during the engagement. On the day of the sinking there was a total listed crew complement of 415 men onboard. Minimum number analysis of the commingled human assemblage identified only 179, from which we sampled 18 individuals from differing decks within the ship. We measured δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N in bone collagen, and δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C in enamel apatite of these individuals in order to obtain information about their diets and origins. While the collagen δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N data are similar to other medieval populations, the δ¹⁸O data indicate that a significant proportion of the crew did not originate in Britain, but rather they emanated from warmer, more southerly, regions. These data suggest the presence of 33–60% of non-natives, possibly mercenaries and/or ‘prest’ men, amongst the crew. Together with the contemporary remark shouted from the Mary Rose to a passing ship, that the Captain had the “type of knaves of whom, he could not rule”, our results lend weight to the suggestion that poor communication may well have contributed the observed fatal navigational manoeuvre which led to her sinking.     

A brackish water aquatic foodweb: trophic levels and salinity gradients in the Schlei fjord, Northern Germany, in Viking and medieval times

This study serves for the definition of baseline isotopic signatures of vertebrates living in the Schlei fjord, a brackish water inlet in the north German plain, where the salinity decreases from its mouth at the Baltic Sea towards the inland locations. The Viking trade centre Haithabu and its immediate successor, the town of Schleswig, are located at opposite banks of the Schlei and constitute a settlement continuum from the 9th until the 13th century. This development not only includes a relocation of the settlement site, but also a change in economy and social structure, and witnesses the metamorphosis from an international trading locality to the rise and decline of a prototypical medieval town with town charter. In this paper, stable isotope ratios of bone collagen and bone structural carbonate of 141 vertebrate bone finds mainly of fish, birds, and sea mammals from both sites are reported to provide the baseline food web in this brackish water environment, which is the prerequisite for our ongoing studies aiming at the reconstruction of human subsistence strategies as well as the geographic origin of humans, animals, food stuffs, and raw materials in order to complete the historical picture of emerging medieval towns in a complex palaeoecosystem. In particular, we are able to show how a combination of stable isotopes from bone collagen and carbonate is capable of defining the salinity gradients in the aquatic environment.     

Stable isotope evidence for salt-marsh grazing in the Bronze Age Severn Estuary,UK: implications for palaeodietary analysis at coastal sites

Stable isotope analyses of modern coastal and salt-marsh plant species (‘salt-loving’ plants or halophytes) have demonstrated that these are significantly enriched in ¹⁵N compared to other terrestrial plants. Coastal salt-marshes were far more extensive in the past than they are today. They represented a vast and much-exploited resource in many areas of the UK and north-western Europe and were considered to be prime land for the grazing of animal stock.     

Stable isotopic analysis of human bones from Jiahu site,Henan, China: implications for the transition to agriculture

We have investigated change in subsistence during the transition to agriculture in the site of Jiahu, Henan Province, China, using stable isotopic analysis of collagen and apatite in human bones. Millet agriculture is well documented at drier high latitudes of the Yellow River Valley, while rice agriculture predominated at wetter lower latitudes of the Yangtze Valley region. The early Neolithic site of Jiahu lies near the boundary between the drier north and wetter south. Archaeobotanical evidence shows that rice was a significant component of diet at Jiahu, but its δ¹³C value is similar to that of other foods, and therefore cannot be conclusively identified by carbon isotope analysis. Foxtail and broomcorn millets are the only C₄ crops known for the Chinese Neolithic. Because of their high δ¹³C values, their consumption can be evaluated by stable carbon isotope analysis of human bone. Collagen reflects mainly the δ¹³C value of dietary protein, and apatite accurately records that of the whole diet. Isotopic analysis of 15 well-preserved samples from three periods shows that collagen δ¹³C values were very low for almost all individuals, suggesting C₃-based foods dominated their diets. However, apatite carbonate δ¹³C values and δ¹³C spacing between collagen and apatite (Δ¹³C_ap-co) indicate that millet may have been a minor component of the diet in this region. Individuals, who consumed the smallest amounts of animal protein, as indicated by low δ¹⁵N, generally had the highest apatite δ¹³C values. Archaeobotanical evidence for millet at Jiahu is needed to support this interpretation.     

Beyond the grave: variability in Neolithic diets in Southern Germany?

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analyses were undertaken on human and faunal remains from two Neolithic sites in Southern Germany; the LBK settlement at Herxheim and the middle Neolithic cemetery at Trebur. Stable isotope data were used to reconstruct the diets of individuals buried at these sites and to look at dietary variation between groups classified by their sex, age, grave goods and cultural affiliation. Overall there was surprisingly little variation in the diet between the groups, as described by the stable isotope analysis, despite significant differences in the composition of grave goods. Also surprising, considering the archaeological evidence for extensive grain cultivation in this region during the Neolithic, was that the majority of individuals had δ¹⁵N values consistent with the consumption of significant amounts of animal protein.     

FOCUS: effect of diet and protein source on carbon stable isotope ratios in collagen: follow up to

We analyzed carbon stable isotope data from bone collagen of animals consuming varied experimental diets, including recently published data from Warinner and Tuross [Warinner, C., Tuross, N., 2009. Alkaline cooking and stable isotope tissue–diet spacing in swine: archaeological implications. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 1690–1697; this journal]. Comparing regression lines for the relationship between collagen and diet δ¹³C, we show that protein source, and not physiology, explains the apparent taxonomic difference between swine and rodents reported in that paper. Our results reveal a complex relationship between whole diet and dietary protein in determining collagen δ¹³C values, such that in many cases, collagen alone may not provide reliable reconstructions of paleodiet. We advocate the simultaneous use of both collagen and apatite δ¹³C, whenever possible, to assess the diets of prehistoric peoples.